Cognition Exam2

Memory

processes involved in retaining, retrieving, and using info about stimuli, images, events, ideas, and skills after the original information in no longer present

active when past experiences influences

Atkinson & Shiffrin

• 1986, memory model

• input → sensory mem → short term mem → ← long term mem

• attended to advances to sensory, rehearsal keeps in STM

Short Term Memory

5-7 items, 15-20 seconds

Rehearsal

control process that holds info in short term mem

Sensory Mem

initial stage, seconds - fractions of a second, holds all incoming

quick info decay, Sperling

Long Term Mem

large amt of info for years → decades

Control Processes

active, controlled by the person

1. rehearsal

2. strategies to make stim more memorable

3. strategies of attention - focusing on a specific stimuli

Iconic Memory Storage

brief sensory mem of things we see

persistence of vision - retention of perception of light, films

Echoic Mem

brief sens mem of things we hear, persistence of sound

Sperling

• 1960, iconic mem, capacity and duration of sensory memory with light

• flash letters on screen - report letters seen

• tone for row played after letters - report ~82% of letters in that row

• delayed tone → dramatic performance decrease

Short Term Mem Storage

new info from sensory + info from LTM

Peterson & Peterson, Miller, Luck & Vogel, Ericson

Peterson and Peterson

1959, STM duration

3 letters, 3 digit #, given letters to recite after counting down by threes from the #

18 sec recall, decay

Digit Span

how many digits a person can remember, 3-9

Miller 1956 magic # 7+-2

Luck & Vogel

1997, change detection, 4 items in STM

100ms show screen, 900ms delay, 200ms screen again

Chunking

small units can be combined into larger meaningful units

by association, story mnemonics

Ericson et al.

Ericson et al.

1980, chunking can be trained

student participant, memorize and recite digits by creating meaningful units, SF

Alvarez & Cavanugh

2004, STM by amt of info not number of items

Luck & Vogel replication with addition

colored squares > chinese char > random polygons > shaded cubes

Working Memory

lim cap sys for temp storage and manip of infor for complex tasks like comprehension, learning, and reasoning

phonological loop + central executive + visuospatial sketch pad

Baddeley and Hitch 1974

Phonological Loop

verbal and auditory info

phonological similarity effect, word length effect, articulatory suppression

Phonological Similarity effect

letters or words that sound sim are confused

Word Length Effect

mem of word lists are better for short words

rehearsing long words and producing them takes longer, slows reading speed

Articulatory Suppression

• speaking prevents rehearsal of items to be remembered

• reduces mem span, elim word length effect

• reduces phonological stim effect for reading words

• disrupts subvocalization ability

Visuospatial Sketch Pad

creation of visual image in the mind in the absence of a physical visual stim

Shepard & Metcler - 1971, mental rotation task, more rotation → longer time to id, linear results

Central Executive

attention controller. divide, focus, and switch attention

controls suppression of irrelevant info, preservation

Preservation

repeatedly performing the same action or thought even if it is not achieving the desired goal

Episodic Buffer

backup storage, communicates with LTM and WM

holds info longer with greater capacity than phonological loop or visuospatial sketch pad

binds info from storages together

Working Memory and Brain Damage

prefrontal cortex

Funashashi, Stokes

Prefrontal Cortex

processes incoming visual and auditory info

sustained attention, rehearsal, goals

Funashashi et al.

1989, single cell recordings from monkey prefrontal cortex during delayed response task

info retained until neurons stop firing

Stokes

2015, working memory function

STM from neural network changes, activity - silent WM

synaptic = no firing, connections btwn neurons are strengthened

active = info to be remembered causes neurons to fire

Parietal Lobe

sustained attention

Temporal Lobe

LTM, perception

Reverberating Signals

memory throughout the brain

parietal, temporal, prefrontal cortex

Vogel

2005, WM > STM

EEG, ERP data, show simple or complex stim

high performers better at ignoring distractors, lower ERP responses

LTM

works closely with RM, storage stretches back for as long as one can remember

inaccessible vs. forgotten

past events and knowledge

Serial Position Curve

give list of words in certain order, abil to remember them

primacy effect - better at remembering beginning words, rehearsal

recency effect = better at remembering the last words, 30s delay elims (STM)

Testing Memory

1. recognition = abil to ID if stim was prev experienced

2. recall = abil to recount detailed info with presence of complete cue

   1. free recall - no external cues

   2. cue recall - given external cues but not the recalled

Proactive Interference

stim for Wickens et al, 1976

grouped - fruits vs professions

dec in mem when prev learned info interferes w learning new info

Release from Proactive Interference

elim or reduce performance dec caused by the proactive interference

Memory In the Brain

Hippocampus = episodic mem, recent LTM, STM → LTM transfer

Back of Temporal Lobe = semantic mem

Parietal Lobe = STM

Cerebellum = procedural mem

HM

no hippocampus, anterograde amnesia

STM remained - 2 minutes

no episodic em, intact semantic mem

KF

damaged parietal lobe, STM impaired

encephalitis damage, impaired semantic, intact episodic

Double Dissociation

HM and KF, opposite memory issues, Rangarath & D’Esposito - STM and LTM interdependent, hippocampus maintains for short delays

Episodic Memory

mental time travel, person experience, self knowing, remembering is reliving

recollection

Semantic Memory

general knowledge, facts, knowing

familiarity

Episodic & Semantic Interaction

• can lose episodic → semantic (fade away) over time

• enhance semantic with associated episodic

  • autobiographical - spec experience

  • personal semantic mem - personal experience attached

Prospective Memory

remember and perform actions planned for later

constructive episodic simulation hypothesis from this

Constructive Episodic Simulation Hypothesis

episodic mem extracted and recombined to create sims of future events

adaptive fxn sim to mind wandering, anticipates future needs and guides behavior

great overlap btwn past and future picturing in brain

Long Term Memory

• explicit - stored, conscious/declarative

  • episodic - personal events

  • semantic - facts, knowledge

• implicit - non conscious, nondeclarative, learning from experience wo conscious memory

  • procedural memory

  • priming

  • conditioning

Procedural Mem

skill, mem for actions, no mem of where/when knowledge was learned, perform wo conscious awareness of how

still exists in those without LTM

Priming

change in response to stim caused by prev presentation of the same or sim stimulus

blue vs red followed by pond - RT difference

mere exposure, propaganda effects

Mere Exposure Effect

subconscious inc in liking for familiar items due to repeated exposure

Propaganda Effect

people are more likely to rate statements read or heard before as being true

Conditioning

Classical - HM responded to

Operant - behav rear through reinforcement of diminish/disappear through punishment, shape behav

Encoding

acquiring info and transforming it into mem

Retrieval

transferring of LTM info → WM

Maintenance Rehearsal

Rep of stim that maintains info but does not transfer it to LTM

Elaborative Rehearsal

using meanings and connections to help transfer info to LTM

Levels of Processing Theory

Craik & Tulvig 1975

mem depends on how info in encoded. shallow processing and deep processing

Shallow Processing

little attention to meaning, focus on physical features, perceptual

surface, poor memory of

Deep Processing

closer attention to meaning, better mem

makes more associations

Encoding Factors

1. visual imagery

2. self reference effect

3. generation effect

4. organizing to be remembered info

5. relating words to survival value

6. retrieval practice

Visual Imagery

generate mental image to visually connect words, up 50%

paired associate learning procedure (5 sec show word pairs, then remember them)

the easier words are to image the easier they are to remember

Self Reference Effect

mem is better when you relate a word to yourself, 18%

Leshikar, study averages, questions about words that are associated with their traits

better memory for yes’s than no’s

Generation Effect

mem better when one generates the material rather than read it, 28%

Slameka & Grof, word pairs, king-ca___

Organizing to be remembered info

• categories can serve as a retrieval cue, 40-50%

• Bower - concept map or random

• preventing organization hurts memory - Bransford & Johnson 1972

  • saw picture of written scenario before/after/never the reading

  • before did better

Relating Words to Survival Value

Nairne - rate words for foreign grasslands/moving somewhere/pleasantness, best mem for foreign grasslands

remember better if good for survival

Retrieval Practice

prev testing effect, 20%

active recall of info strengthens long term learning relative to rrestudying

Karpicke & Roediger, restudying only stronger at short retention intervals

Effective Studying

Cued Recall

aids recall, most effective when created by the person using them, 45%

Context Dependent Learning

• encoding specificity

• learn info together with context, good for mood and location and physiological

• Baddeley 1975 diving, land or underwater, did better on test in matching condition (word lists)

• Miles and Hardham - exercise or rest

Moris et al.

1977, transfer - appropriate processing

mem task results are better if processing used during encoding is the same as retrieval

rhyming vs meaning

Consolidation

new mem from fragile state → more perm state

small delay → up consolidation → inc mem, Miller and Pilzecker

synaptic and systems

Synaptic Consolidation

rapid, at synapse, short breaks

Hebb 1948 - neural record of experience, synapse physiological changes w learning and memory

long term potentiation

Systems consolidation

gradual reoganization of neural circuits, no longer retrieve from hippocampus when complete

contributes to mvmt of mem out of hippocampus in to cortical

takes weeks to years

Long Term Potentiation

enhanced firing of neurons after repeated stimuli → structural changes

up NT release and reception, enhanced responsivity

opposite is long term depression

Reactivation

replaying encoded mem to reinforce and stabilize them for long term storage

Retrograde Amnesia

loss of mem for events prior to trauma

Graded Amnesia

mem for recent events is more fragile than for remote events

Multiple Trace Consolidation Model

hippocampus activates during retrieval of recent and remote memories not only at the beginning of consolidation

fMRI - multiple trace Viskontas et al. 09, picture pair learning

. know (semantic) = less hippocampus reliance, moving info for remote mem is contained in prefrontal cortex and posterior hippocampus

Consolidation & Sleep

• enhanced during sleep (Gais 06)

• sleeping stops interference from envi stim

• some mem consolidated better than others - when expected to remember (Wilhelm 2011), valued/preferred/emotional

• stage 2 sleep spindles, non REM sleep

Anisomycin

inhibits P synth to prevent changes at the synapse responsible for formulating new memories

Nadar et al. 2000, prevented mem when injected before, after, or during mem reactivation

Hupbach 07

can overwrite - new list to remember - to make participants do worse at saying the first list by mem disruption

temporal context model - alternate explanation, association of 2 lists → interference

PTSD Reconsolidation

severe emotional responses to traumatic mem, can be helped with reconsolidation

Brunet et al. 2008: react to traumatic mem, propranolol (block amygdala stress receivers), later reactivation has a lower stress response

Brain is not a Camera

inattentional and change blindness, reconsolidation, mem is constructed of what happened, what happened after, and associated general knowledge

Greenberg and Rubin 2003

Objective and Autobiographical Memory

damage to visual region → cannot recog obj, lose AM

visual images are cues for AM mem encoding and retrieval

Cabeza et al.

2004, AB mem

view photos participant took and that others took

more hippocampus and prefrontal cortex activation for own photos

Remembered Well

significant events - marriage, childbirth

highly emotional events - weapon focus

transition points starting college, dif route to work

Mem Over Lifetime

mem high for “prime time” and recent events

reminiscence bump, positivity bias

Reminiscence Bump Causes

1. Self Image Hypothesis

2. Cognitive Hypothesis

3. Cultural Life Script Hypothesis

4. Youth Bias

Self Image Hypothesis

mem enhanced for events that occur as a person’s identity and self image is being formed

many transitions in adolescence and young adulthood and identity is built then

Cognitive Hypothesis

encoding better during periods of rapid change followed by stability

immigrants have shifted bump to time of immigration

Cultural Life Script Hypothesis

each person has personal life story and knowledge of culturally expected events

easier to recall events when they fit cultural expectations/script

Youth Bias

most notable public events to be perceived to occur when someone is young

from asking people to pick age of most important life event for theoretical human

Exceptional Events - Emotion

emotions improve mem, become greater with time - may enhance consolidation

positive emotion enhances peripheral details

negative emotion enhances central details

Flashbulb Memories

mem for circumstances around shocking highly charged emotional events

vivid, very detailed (highly emotional), not photographic

repeated recall changes the mems - Neissen and Harasch, Talarico and Rubin

Source Monitoring

peripheral details, where and when a mem came from

narrative rehearsal hypoth, source mem = process of determing mem origin

source monitoring error = misidentify source of mem

Narrative Rehearsal Hypothesis

repeated viewing/hearing of an event

rehearsal → mem errors

Cryptomnesia

unconscious plagiarism of anothers work due to lack of recognition of its original source

forgotten mem resurfaced as a novel thought

Music, Odor, AM

nostalgia (mem that involves a sentimental affection for the past) evoked by music

music enhances AM, more vivid and detailed mems than face cues

Proust effect - smell triggers vivid and emotional mems