DevPsych - Ch 11

What are the three stages of adolescence?

Early adolescence (puberty to 13), Middle adolescence (14–16), Late adolescence (17 to early adulthood).

What is puberty?

The transition from childhood to biological maturity and reproductive capability; a gradual process involving physical and hormonal changes.

What are five factors influencing the timing of puberty?

Heredity, nutrition/health, stress/family conflict, exercise levels, and socioeconomic conditions.

How can chronic stress affect puberty in females?

It can accelerate the onset of puberty.

How can intense exercise affect puberty in females?

It can delay puberty.

What are three social effects of entering puberty?

Increased interest in dating/sexual behavior, more parent-child conflict, and redefining independence from family.

What is synaptic pruning?

Elimination of unused neural connections to increase brain efficiency; contributes to reduced plasticity in adolescence.

What is specialization/lateralization?

Cognitive functions localizing to specific brain hemispheres; part of adolescent brain maturation.

What is Piaget's stage for adolescence?

Formal Operational Stage.

What are key cognitive advances in the Formal Operational Stage?

Logical reasoning about abstract/hypothetical situations, thinking about the "possible," using propositional logic, and systematic problem-solving.

What is propositional logic?

Combining statements to form logical conclusions; developed in adolescence.

How does information-processing change in adolescence?

Increased attention span, better working memory, improved cognitive strategies, greater automatization, and a broader knowledge base.

What is Erikson's psychosocial stage for adolescence?

Identity vs. Role Confusion.

What are the four developmental tasks in Erikson's Identity vs. Role Confusion stage?

Establishing personal identity, building emotional intimacy with peers, redefining family roles, and developing autonomy/purpose.

What is identity in Erikson's theory?

A unified, coherent sense of self integrating values, beliefs, and life goals.

Who expanded Erikson’s theory into identity statuses?

James Marcia.

What are Marcia’s four identity statuses?

Identity Diffusion, Foreclosure, Moratorium, Identity Achievement.

What defines Identity Diffusion?

No crisis/exploration and no commitment; unfocused and lacking direction.

What defines Foreclosure?

Commitment without exploration; often adopting parental expectations.

What defines Moratorium?

Active exploration without commitment; may involve anxiety and uncertainty.

What defines Identity Achievement?

Exploration followed by commitment; leads to self-confidence and stability.

What is the formula for identity achievement?

Exploration + Commitment = identity achievement and psychological well-being.

How does peer acceptance affect adolescents?

It becomes central to self-concept and confidence.

What role do peer groups play?

They shape identity, behavior norms, and emotional regulation.

How do friendships shift from childhood to adolescence?

Focus moves from shared activities to emotional closeness, self-disclosure, and mutual trust.

What is the primary purpose of dating in adolescence?

Social exploration and emotional learning, not marriage.

How do romantic relationships benefit adolescents?

They provide settings for emotional learning, sexual exploration, and interpersonal skill development.

How do family dynamics change during adolescence?

Cognitive maturity leads to seeking independence; conflicts arise as roles become more egalitarian.

What is the eventual shift in parent-adolescent relationships?

Toward mutual respect and adult-like interactions over time.

Which parenting style is linked to the best adolescent outcomes?

Authoritative parenting.

What are features of authoritative parenting?

Warmth, clear expectations, and open communication.

What outcomes are linked to authoritative parenting?

Greater maturity, strong academic motivation, high self-esteem, and lower rates of aggression/delinquency.

How does authoritarian parenting affect adolescents?

Focus on obedience; often stifles autonomy.

How does permissive parenting affect adolescents?

Low control can lead to impulsivity and poor self-discipline.

What is the role of perspective-taking in adolescence?

Cognitive growth enables deeper understanding of others' viewpoints.

Why do friendships diversify in adolescence?

Adolescents learn to balance multiple relationships and social roles.

What is the main cognitive benefit of synaptic pruning?

More efficient processing of complex thoughts.

What is a limitation of reduced brain plasticity in adolescence?

Less adaptability to new learning or recovery from injury.

What does the Information-Processing Approach emphasize?

Gradual improvement in mental efficiency, not distinct stages.

What is automatization?

When basic mental tasks become faster and require less conscious effort.

What is the "crisis" in Marcia's identity statuses?

Period of active exploration of roles and values.

How does late adolescence differ from early adolescence?

Focus shifts to long-term goals, career paths, and adult relationships.

What is a key hormonal change during puberty?

Increased production of sex hormones (estrogen/testosterone).

How does nutrition affect puberty?

Better nutrition can lead to earlier onset.

How does socioeconomic status affect puberty?

Access to healthcare, stress, and diet can influence timing.

What is the primary social unit that adolescents begin to separate from?

Family, as they seek greater independence.

What brain change increases processing speed in adolescence?

Neural pathways becoming faster and more refined.

What cognitive skill allows adolescents to consider multiple outcomes?

Systematic problem-solving and hypothetical thinking.

What is the main emotional function of close friendships in adolescence?

Support emotional expression and prepare for romantic intimacy.

How does parental monitoring typically change during adolescence?

It decreases as adolescents gain more independence.

What is the ultimate goal of identity development in adolescence?

To achieve a stable, coherent sense of self.

What are the four phases of adolescence in industrialized societies?

Early adolescence (11-14), Middle adolescence (14-16), Late adolescence (16-18), Emerging adulthood (18-25).

What is puberty?

The biological transition to adulthood involving physical maturation and the capacity for reproduction.

What triggers puberty?

The brain signals the endocrine system to increase sex hormones: testosterone in males, estrogens in females.

What is the adolescent growth spurt?

A rapid gain in height and weight; begins earlier in girls (~10) than boys (~12).

In what order does the growth spurt occur?

Extremities → arms and legs → torso, leading to a temporary “lanky” appearance.

How does body shape differ between sexes during puberty?

Females gain more fat (legs/hips); males gain more muscle (upper body).

What are secondary sex characteristics?

Body changes indicating maturation but not directly related to fertility (e.g., body hair, voice changes).

What are primary sex characteristics?

Maturation of the reproductive organs (e.g., uterus, testes).

What is menarche?

A girl's first menstruation; average age ~12.25 in North America.

What is spermarche?

A boy’s first ejaculation; average age ~13, often via nocturnal emissions.

What is early maturing in girls?

Before age 8.

What is early maturing in boys?

Before age 9.

What are risks for early-maturing girls?

Negative body image, depression, anxiety, early dating, dating violence, sexual harassment.

What are risks for early-maturing boys?

Popularity/confidence but also higher depression, antisocial behavior, problematic drinking.

What is late maturing in girls?

After age 13.

What is late maturing in boys?

After age 14.

How can late maturation be protective for girls?

Less teasing, lower anxiety.

What is the secular trend in puberty?

Historical decline in average age of puberty over generations, linked to better living standards and obesity.

What are daily caloric needs in adolescence?

~2,000 calories for girls; ~2,700 calories for boys.

What is a protective factor for adolescent nutrition?

Family meals—linked to healthier eating, lower BMI, better mental health.

What percentage of US adolescents meet the recommended 60 minutes of daily activity?

Only ~8%.

What is delayed phase preference?

A biological shift in sleep patterns during puberty; teens feel alert later at night and sleepy later in the morning.

How much sleep do adolescents need?

~9 hours per night.

What is a major consequence of insufficient sleep in teens?

Impaired learning, memory, executive function, increased anxiety, depression, and risky behaviors.

What are the leading causes of adolescent mortality?

Fatal injuries from accidents, suicide, and homicide.

Which group shows dramatically higher rates of death by homicide?

Black adolescents.

What is synaptic pruning?

Elimination of unused neural connections to increase brain efficiency; accelerates in adolescence.

What happens to gray matter volume in adolescence?

It peaks in childhood and decreases due to myelination, speeding communication.

Which brain region matures slowly into the mid-20s?

The prefrontal cortex (reasoning, judgment, executive function).

Which brain system develops early in adolescence?

The limbic system (emotion, including amygdala and hippocampus).

What is the dual systems model?

Theory that different timetables of limbic (early) and prefrontal (late) development explain adolescent risk-taking.

How does adolescent brain activity differ in response to emotional stimuli?

Highly active limbic system but relatively inactive prefrontal cortex.

Which neurotransmitter increases reward sensitivity in adolescence?

Dopamine.

What is plasticity in the adolescent brain?

The brain remains highly adaptable and sensitive to experience during adolescence.

How does heavy substance use affect the adolescent brain?

Linked to abnormal gray/white matter, thinner prefrontal cortex, impaired attention/memory/executive function.

What is Piaget's Formal Operational Stage?

Final stage (~age 11+) characterized by abstract, logical, and systematic thought.

What is hypothetical-deductive reasoning?

Ability to form and systematically test hypotheses.

What improves in information processing during adolescence?

Selective attention, divided attention, working memory, executive function, processing speed.

What is metacognition?

“Thinking about thinking”; knowledge and control over one’s cognitive processes.

What is mutual perspective-taking (Selman)?

Understanding that self and others can consider each other’s viewpoints; develops in early adolescence.

What is adolescent egocentrism (Elkind)?

Difficulty distinguishing one’s own thoughts from others’.

What is the imaginary audience?

Belief that one is the focus of others’ attention, leading to self-consciousness.

What is the personal fable?

Belief that one is unique, special, and invulnerable to harm, leading to risk-taking.

Why might adolescent decision-making be poor in real life?

Due to emotional arousal, peer pressure, reward sensitivity, immature inhibition, and focus on short-term benefits.

What is Stage-Environment Fit (Eccles & Roeser)?

Mismatch between adolescents’ needs (autonomy, support) and school environment (impersonal, controlling) leads to negative outcomes.

How does authoritative parenting relate to academic achievement?

High expectations, warmth, and involvement are linked to better achievement across cultures.

What are risks of working more than 20 hours/week in adolescence?

Poor school performance, dropout, and problem behaviors.

When can adolescent employment be beneficial?

For some low-SES adolescents of color, if jobs provide vocational skills and adult contact.

What is a key factor influencing pubertal timing?

Body weight/fat; a critical level triggers puberty.