Human Geography Unit 5

12.1 Agriculture and environment

The first crops to be harvested through agriculture were food crops, such as fruits, vegetables, and grains, the most widespread being corn (or maize), wheat, and rice.

the greater the distance from the Equator, the shorter the growing season. Higher elevation means colder temperatures, which results in a shorter growing season for plants.

• For example, in tropical regions in Central America and South America, the hotter lowlands are used to grow tropical crops such as bananas and sugarcane.

• Soil has four constituent parts: mineral particles, water, air, and organic matter like decaying plant material.

• Slope can also be a factor i n land productivity due to the position of the land toward or away from the sun, which affects how much of the sun's energy the land receives.

• Sometimes landscapes are modified for better environmental factors. Terrace building for farming protects soil on steep slopes, while irrigation or drainage schemes influence water availability.

Climate

• This means that places near the Equator get consistent sunlight and warm temperatures all year because the sun’s rays hit them directly.

• Just to the north and south of the tropics are huge dry bands containing deserts including the Sahara, Kalahari, Sonora, and Atacama.

• that ocean currents move warm water from the Equator toward the poles and cold water from the poles toward the Equator, helping regulate global temperatures.

• Water heats and cools slowly, so coastal areas have milder climates with less extreme temperatures than inland areas.

Climate regions:climate regions, or areas that have similar climate patterns generally based on their latitude and their location on coasts or continental interiors.

Vladimir Köppen, a Russian-German scientist, developed a system for classifying the world's climates. He identified five broad climate types: tropical, dry, temperate, continental, and polar,

• The tropical monsoon climate-found in South Asia and West Africa extremely heavy summer rains and dry winters.

• Semiarid climates receive enough precipitation to allow the growth of grasslands

• Humid temperate climates, typically found on the eastern sides of continents, have colder winters and year-round precipitation.

• The marine west coast climate, found on the west coasts of continents at higher latitudes, has cooler winters and a lot of rain, which supports the growth of temperate rainforests.

• Mediterranean climates are commonly found on the west coasts of continents near deserts and around the Mediterranean Sea in countries such as Italy, Greece, and Tunisia.

• A continental climate is characterized by large temperature variations between summer and winter. It typically occurs in inland areas, far from large bodies of water, where there is less moderating effect on temperature.

Mediterranean agriculture consists of growing hardy trees (such as olive, fruit, and nut (trees) and shrubs (like grape vines) and raising sheep and goats.

The two polar climate types, tundra and ice cap, are found near the North and South Poles and are both extremely cold.

The tundra climate has a short, mild summer but is to cold to allow farming.

The temperatures in the ice cap climates of the Arctic and Antarctic rarely rise above freezing.

Unit 12.2 Agricultural practices

• Subsistence Agriculture: farming focused on growing enough food to meet the needs of the farmer and their family, with little or no surplus for sale.

• Commercial agriculture: Commercial agriculture is farming aimed at producing crops and livestock for sale in local, national, or global markets. It involves large-scale production, often using advanced technology, machinery, and chemical inputs like fertilizers and pesticides to maximize yields.

→ Bid-rent theory explains how land value determines how a farmer will use the land-either intensively or extensively. William Alonso

Where land value is high, farmers will buy less land and use it intensively to produce the most agricultural yield per unit of land.

Where land has a lower value or is farther from the market, farmers will buy more land and use it less intensively, or extensively.

→ According to this theory, dairy and produce farmers, concerned with issues of freshness, perishability, and transportation, for example, are willing to pay higher costs-or "rent" —for land close to the market.

The rent bid gradient refers to the rate at which land rents decrease as you move away from the central business district (CBD) in urban areas. The demand for central locations is translated into high land values.

→ The bid-rent theory assumes there is one CBD.

the bid-rent theory explains how land costs determine how intensively the land is farmed.

Intensive subsistence agriculture

When people work the land intensively, putting forth a large amount of human labor to generate high crop yields on small plots of land to support their family and local community, they are practicing intensive subsistence agriculture.

→ In 2019, for example, Cyclone Idai hit southern Africa with heavy rains, flooding, and damaging winds that destroyed crops throughout the region, greatly reducing crop yields and contributing to widespread hunger.

→ One such example of intensive subsistence farming is the wet-rice agriculture of Asia. Rice farmers in India modify their environment by leveling and flooding rice paddies, creating additional suitable land for growing a grain they depend on.

Intensive commercial agriculture

Intensive commercial agriculture often incorporates chemical fertilizers and machines, instead of relying mainly upon human and animal labor.

• Monocropping: refers to the agricultural practice of growing a single crop species on the same land over an extensive period. This practice is commonly used in large-scale commercial farming

• Monoculture: broader concept that refers to growing only one type of crop or raising only one type of livestock over a large area. Monoculture applies not only to continuous cropping but also to single-species farming in forestry and animal husbandry.

→ However, monocropping can strip nutrients from the soil; for instance, intensive cotton production leads to soil exhaustion.

• Crop rotation: practice of growing different crops in the same field over different seasons to improve soil health, reduce pests, and enhance yields.

• Plantation agriculture: involves large-scale commercial farming of one particular crop grown for markets often distant from the plantation.

This type of intensive commercial agriculture typically takes place in peripheral and semi-peripheral economies in the tropical regions of Asia, Africa, and the Americas → Major plantation crops include cotton, tobacco, tea, coffee, sugarcane, bananas, palm oil, and rubber.

Brazil-a leading producer of crops like sugarcane and coffee-is one of the world's leading consumers of pesticides.

• market gardening: farming that produces fruits, vegetables, and flowers and typically serves a specific market, or urban area, where farmers can conveniently sell to local grocery stores, restaurants, farmers markets, and road stands → Chile, Mexico

Market garden operators often need to invest in technology like greenhouses, which use a lot of energy, to start growing seeds before the season begins. This helps them spread out crop production and ensure a steady supply of fresh produce all year round.

Successful market gardens produce a lot of crops on small pieces of land by using intensive farming techniques.

• Truck farming, which used to mean small-scale market gardening, now refers to large commercial farms that grow crops in warm climates and transport them to faraway markets. Big farms in Mexico and the southern and western U.S. grow large amounts of seasonal produce and ship them using refrigerated trucks to keep them fresh during long-distance transport.

• Mixed crop and livestock systems involve raising both crops and animals for profit. There are two types: On-farm mixed farming – Crops and livestock are raised on the same farm. For example, a farmer grows corn and also raises cattle, using crop waste as animal feed and manure as fertilizer. Between-farm mixed farming – Two farmers share resources, with one growing crops and the other raising livestock. The crop farmer might supply feed, while the livestock farmer provides manure for fertilizing fields.

Rural settlement patterns

• The most common form of settlement is a clustered settlement (also known as a nucleated settlement), in which residents live in close proximity. Houses and farm buildings are near one another, with farmland and pasture land surrounding the settlement.

• dispersed settlements, houses and buildings are isolated from one another, and al the homes in a settlement are distributed over a relatively large area → Dispersed settlements often exist in areas with difficult terrain, such as places where resources like water and fertile land are scarce.

• linear settlement pattern, houses and buildings extend in a long line that usually follows a land feature, such as a riverfront, coast, or hill, or aligns along a transportation route.

Extensive agriculture

Extensive agriculture is a farming method that uses large areas of land with minimal labor and input per unit of land. Instead of focusing on high yields from small areas (like intensive farming), extensive agriculture spreads production over vast areas, relying more on natural conditions like rainfall and soil fertility.

→ One type of extensive subsistence agriculture that uses relatively simple technology requiring little capital investment is shifting cultivation.

• Shifting cultivation is the practice of growing crops or grazing animals on a piece of land for a year or two, then abandoning that land when the nutrients have been depleted from the soil and moving to a new piece of land where the process is repeated.

areas of the tropics, particularly in areas with high rainfall, such as in the rain forests of South America, Central and West Africa, and Southeast Asia.

• Slash and burn: Slash-and-burn agriculture is a type of shifting cultivation where farmers clear land by cutting down trees and plants, letting them dry, and then burning them. The burned vegetation turns into nutrient-rich ash, which acts as a natural fertilizer for crops.

This process also destroys the homes of local animals, increases air pollution, and releases more carbon into the atmosphere, which contributes to global climate change.

• Nomadic herding/Pastoral nomadism: type of farming where people move from place to place with their livestock in search of fresh grazing land and water. Instead of staying in one location, they follow seasonal patterns to find new areas for their animals to graze.

• Transhumance: People move their animals seasonally, following a regular pattern. They move to higher ground in the summer and lower ground in the winter, but they follow the same route every year.

difference is that nomadic herding involves continuous movement, while transhumance is about moving between specific places at certain times of the year.

Agricultural origins and diffusions

• Domestication: deliberate effort to grow plants and raise animals, making plants and animals adapt to human demands, and using selective breeding to develop desirable characteristics.

• Foragers: small nomadic groups who had primarily plant-based diets and ate small animals or fish for protein. Foragers fished in rivers and lakes or gathered shellfish and used traps, stones, or projectile weapons to hunt small game.

The first animals to be domesticated were sheep and goats, which supplied hides, milk, and meat.

Ancient hearths

• Agricultural hearth: Each area where different groups began to domesticate plants and animals is called an agricultural hearth.

Domestication first took place in Southwest Asia.

• Fertile crescent: hearth of domestication in Southwest Asia. This region was crucial in the Neolithic Revolution, where humans transitioned from hunting and gathering to agriculture and settled life. From the Fertile Crescent, domesticated plants and animals spread to other regions.

→ eastern M e d i t e r r a n e a n c o a s t up into what is now western Turkey and then south and east along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers through present-day Syria and Iraq to western parts of modern Iran.

→Harappean civilization thrived in Indus river valley. These people took advantage of the fertile valley and farmed wheat, barley, peas, sesame, and possibly cotton. Their domesticated animals included cattle, fowl, pigs, camels, and buffalo.

Agriculture flourished in these regions because of fertile soil, the availability of water, moderate climates, and the organizational skills of the residents.

• Columbian exchange: began after Christopher Columbus landed in the Americas in 1492. Isolation proved disastrous for the indigenous peoples of the Americas, as they had no immunities to diseases from the Eastern Hemisphere, including smallpox and malaria.

• Crops from the Americas like maize and potatoes

  packed a powerful nutritional punch. They were quickly

  adopted in regions of Europe, Asia, and Africa that had

  climate conditions similar to areas where the crops grew

  in the Americas.

12.4 Advances in agriculture

first agricultural revolution

first agricultural revolution occurred 11000 years ago → shift from searching food or foraging to farming which marked beginning of agriculture. the revolution occurred in different hearths at different times.

In addition, this revolution included domestication of the most common animals that humans raise today, including sheep, goats, cattle, pigs, chickens, horses, and camels.

^{→ The first agricultural revolution is sometimes called the Neolithic Revolution because it took place during a time in history now known as the Neolithic Age, or New Stone Age. people used tools made of stone or bone}

went from being nomadic to being sedentary or semisedentary. Sedentary means settling in one place and making that place a permanent home. People built more durable housing and possessed goods that didn't have to be light enough to transport to a new area.

Farmers learned to plant seeds from their strongest plants to generate more productive crops.

People in some areas began to practice irrigation, expanding the areas that could be farmed and ensuring a ready supply of water during the growing season.

Eventually, people began to work with metals, and skilled metal workers produced stronger tools and weapons or made luxury goods like jewelry.

Larger settlements led to new forms of social organization. Ruling classes arose in many societies, as certain individuals or groups took charge of making laws, organizing productive activities, distributing resources, and settling disputes. cities developed.

Nearby settlements traded with one another and with distant communities as well, which provided locally available raw materials such as metals and luxury goods.

second agricultural revolution

In the 11th century c.E., farmers in southern China planted a faster- growing rice native to Vietnam. The new variety allowed Chinese farmers to produce two crops of rice a year.

That changed in the early 1700s, when new practices and tools launched the second agricultural revolution, which began in Britain and the Low Countries (Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands)

This revolution saw dramatic improvements in crop yields, innovations like more effective yokes for oxen, and later the replacement of oxen by horses, as well as advancements in fertilizers and field drainage systems.

Britain gradually moved to a system called enclosure, where shared community lands were divided into privately owned farms. Instead of everyone using the land together, only the owner or those who rented it could use it → However, it also pushed peasants of the land and created a labor surplus—a factor that contributed to the Industrial Revolution

One of the most important new technologies of the second agricultural revolution was a horse-drawn seed drill invented by Jethro Tull in England around 1701

john Deere invented a steel plow that by 1838 made it easier to plow in deep, tough soil, such as that found in the American Midwest.

→ Farmers also adopted new methods of crop rotation that prevented soil exhaustion and increased yields. Called the Norfolk four-field system, it involved the yearly rotation of several crops, including wheat, turnips, barley, clover, and ryegrass.

third agricultural revolution

The third agricultural revolution began in the early 20th century and continues to the present day. It features further mechanization and the development of new technology,

→ The first shift was the move to mechanical and then electrical power, breaking away from the millennia-old reliance on animal power.

→ In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, scientists used genetics to change plants and animals, creating GMOs (genetically modified organisms). These modified crops and animals are stronger and can resist diseases, pests, or harsh weather better.

Scientists inserted a gene from a bacterium that acts as a natural pesticide into crops like potatoes, cotton, and corn. This made the plants resistant to pests, reducing the need for chemical pesticides.

producers are using technology to monitor their fields for water and nutrient levels, ensuring crops get the precise amount they need.

Some scientists call this use of information technology and data analytics the fourth agricultural revolution. It involves collecting and analyzing data using GPS technology, smart farming equipment with sensors and wireless connections (precision agriculture), computer databases, and advanced information processing.

Productivity though technology

The increased mechanization of farming initially took the form of the invention and use of motorized tractors.

Mechanical combines cut grain and separate the seed from the stalk, expediting the harvest.

Adopting electricity greatly aided crop storage and preservation and enhanced livestock raising and dairy farming.

Another 20th-century innovation was the development and widespread use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. The former helped make fields more productive.

The green revolution

the green movement was the third agricultural; revolution

t involved the widespread adoption of new technologies, high-yield crop varieties, chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and advanced irrigation techniques, leading to a dramatic increase in food production, especially in developing countries.

Spearheading this movement was Norman Borlaug, an American scientist from lowa who w a s dedicated t o the idea of transferring the advances of the third agricultural revolution to peripheral and semi-peripheral areas → Mexico

A crucial part of his vision of the Green Revolution was to train local agricultural scientists so that they could continue to make advances. For his work, Borlaug was awarded the 1970 Nobel Peace Prize and has been called the "father of the Green Revolution."

Impact and response

• First, increased mechanization reduced the need for human labor.

• When human labor was required, growers came to rely increasingly on migrant workers.

→ Some Green Revolution technology is controlled by multinational corporations, making farmers dependent on their products. For example, one company sells seeds that resist its pesticide, forcing farmers to buy both. However, they cannot save seeds for the next season and must buy new ones yearly. This expense led to small farms closing and being replaced by large commercial farms.

Green Revolution crops have increased the demand for water, leading to regional inequities and a need for more water development projects. Some of these projects include irrigation systems, dams, and water storage facilities to ensure a steady supply of water for high-yield crops. However, this has often caused water shortages in some areas, while others receive excessive water, contributing to water scarcity and environmental strain.

Case study → women and Africa’s green revolution

For millennia, women in sub-Saharan Africa have worked on farms but haven’t benefited equally from their crucial role in agriculture. They were historically denied property ownership, financial support, better seeds, tools, water, and agricultural training due to patriarchal attitudes that placed greater value on men’s roles in society. This left women as second-class citizens.

In recent years, international food agencies have launched programs to support women in agriculture. One such program, Pathways to Empowerment, was developed by NGOs like CARE and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. It aimed to support women in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, including in over 400 villages across Ghana, Malawi, Mali, and Tanzania, benefiting more than 34,000 women.

The program set up special schools to improve women’s skills, encouraged connections to extension services, and provided better access to seeds and markets. Coaching helped women improve their market access, leading to higher crop sales and better prices. In Malawi, women in the program increased yields despite national declines. In Mali, women produced thousands of extra tons of millet and rice, feeding 31,000 more families for a year. Women’s incomes also grew by 50% in some villages.

Beyond the economic gains, the program also sparked societal change. More women became involved in farm decision-making with their husbands, and in Ghana, laws protecting women’s right to own and work land doubled. Attitudes toward violence against women also improved, significantly enhancing women’s lives.

13.1 Agricultural production regions

Economic forces help to distinguish subsistence agriculture from commercial agriculture. Most subsistence agriculture occurs in rural Africa and parts of Asia and Latin America, where connections to the global market are limited and farmers have less access to credit and financial capital

Most commercial farming takes place in core and semi-peripheral countries with the infrastructure in place to access and supply the global market. Commercial farmers maximize their income by purchasing a high level of external inputs.

→ dual agricultural economy: refers to two agricultural sectors in the same country or region that have different levels of technology and different patterns of demand. South Africa and Zimbabwe are examples of dual agricultural economies

In these areas, subsistence farms where food is grown for farmers to consume exist next to commercial operations that cultivate a crop to sell and often export to core countries where demand for the crop is high.

Large-scale farming is cheaper per acre because costs are spread out, bulk purchases get discounts, machines improve efficiency, and large farms can negotiate better selling prices. This makes farming more profitable but requires more investment and can disadvantage small farmers.

→ Agribusiness: refers to large-scale system that includes the production, processing, and distribution of agricultural products and equipment. commercial farming are part of the agribusiness.

Technology and increased production

Technology has changed the growing season for many crops and improved production.

Hybridization is when scientists mix two plant types to create a better one. They choose plants with good traits, like strong disease resistance or high yield, and cross them to make a new, improved version.

hybrid grains, fruits, and vegetables, in which different varieties of plants are bred to enhance desired characteristics and improve disease resistance.

Since the 1960s, the use of pesticides, including herbicides and insecticides, around the world has increased considerably and led to higher crop yields. Insecticides are chemicals that are toxic to insects.

Policies and preferences

They provide payments to farmers for growing certain crops or for not growing others, place regulations on agricultural imports and exports, or establish price supports in the form of crop purchases made by the government at a guaranteed price.

during the dust bowl in the 1930s in US farmers limited their production and began receiving government payments to stabilize agricultural prices. This lasted until the late 1970s, when attitudes in the government changed. Farmers were no longer paid to produce "nothing," as some argued, but instead were incentivized to produce as much as possible, resulting in surplus grains and low prices.

For instance, quotas are used in Canada in the dairy and poultry industries to keep prices of these gods stable and guarantee farmers a steady income.

Case study → changing dairying and ranching industries

Summary: The Changing Ranching & Dairying Industries

Commercial dairying, the production and sale of milk and related products, is undergoing significant changes in the United States. Traditionally family-run, many dairy farms are closing or adapting due to economic pressures. Falling milk prices, influenced by market demand and government regulations, have led to nearly 3,000 farm closures in 2018 alone. Alternative milk products, such as soy and nut-based alternatives, have also reduced the demand for cow’s milk. Some farmers have transitioned to organic dairy production, which commands higher prices, while others have joined cooperatives to lower costs.

Similarly, the meat production industry has evolved to meet growing demand. Ranching is expanding in areas with vast open land, such as the U.S. and South America. However, most cattle are now sent to feedlots, where they are fattened quickly on grain before being processed. This shift has increased efficiency and profitability but reduced pasture grazing. Despite this trend, organic meat production—where animals graze on organic-certified land—has been growing, with a projected 7% annual increase in organic beef cows between 2019 and 2026.

Factors Impacting Commercial Dairying:

1. Market Demand – Declining milk consumption due to plant-based alternatives.

2. Pricing Regulations – Government policies affecting milk prices.

3. Economic Viability – Smaller farms struggle, while large operations and cooperatives survive.

4. Organic Trends – Increased demand for organic dairy and meat, despite higher costs.

5. Feedlot Expansion – Growing reliance on feedlots for efficiency in meat production.

13.2 the spatial organization of agriculture

family vs. corporate control

The vast majority of the share of farmland controlled by larger farms is in core countries, such as the United States, Canada, Australia, and countries in Europe where commercial agriculture is more prevalent.

Most family subsistence farms are located in the periphery including countries in Asia and Africa

the farming population is aging. Farmers who were once prosperous are retiring or dying without successors in place

→ The result is a shift from small family-operated farms to large corporate- controlled, vertically integrated agribusiness operations.

Vertical integration is when a company takes control of different steps in its production process, from making raw materials to selling the final product. production to processing t o shipping and then to selling, it helps reduce costs, improve efficiencies, and increase profits.

McDonald's has complete control over its agricultural sources, its own processing facilities, distribution centers, transportation systems, and the land that the restaurants occupy.

Commodity chains

A commodity chain refers to the series of steps or processes involved in producing, processing, and distributing a raw material or product. It shows how a raw commodity (like wheat, coffee, or milk) moves from its initial extraction or farming stage to being processed, packaged, and sold to consumers.

Farm subsidies are financial assistance provided by the government to support agricultural businesses, particularly farmers. These subsidies are designed to stabilize food prices, ensure a steady food supply, and support the livelihoods of farmers, especially in industries that face fluctuating prices or other challenges. Farm subsidies originally started during the Great Depression of the 1930s to help struggling farmers and to make sure there was enough food being produced for American consumption.

studies have shown that the largest, most productive farms often benefit the most, rather than the small family-owned operations that might need the assistance the most.

Tariffs

Another factor affecting prices of crops is the use of government tariffs. A tariff is a tax or duty to be paid on a particular import or export.

Tariffs are used to raise government revenue, or income, but they are also used to protect domestic industries against foreign competition.

One example of tariffs leading to a trade war and impacting U.S. agriculture is when President Donald Trump, in 2018, imposed a 25 percent tariff on foreign steel and a 10percent tariff on aluminum imports. This tariff affected more than 800 types of products-worth $34 billion- entering the United States from China.

case study → eating ugly

Summary: Eating Ugly

Around 2.9 trillion pounds of food, nearly a third of global production, are discarded every year, often due to aesthetic reasons. National Geographic Explorer Tristram Stuart is on a mission to reduce food waste by encouraging the consumption of “ugly food” — produce that is discarded simply for being cosmetically imperfect but still perfectly edible.

Stuart’s interest in food waste began in his youth when he collected leftover food from his school kitchen and bakery to feed pigs. As he studied food waste on a global scale, he discovered that many countries produce more food than is consumed, leading to significant surplus and waste. For example, potatoes that are not cosmetically perfect, small parsnips, and misshapen fruits like tomatoes, oranges, and bananas are often thrown out.

Stuart’s research aims to raise awareness about food waste, urging businesses and governments to address the issue. His goal is to highlight the inefficiency of wasting perfectly good food and to encourage changes in how the food supply chain operates.

13.3 The von Thunen model

Rural land use patterns

Johann Heinrich von Thunen was german and he wrote a book about observation he had made regarding the spacial patterns of the farming in 1826

→ He found that specific types of agriculture took place in different locations surrounding the market, or center where business took place in a city or town.

→ A pattern of intensive rural practices close to the market and extensive rural practices farther from the market emerged.

Based on this principle, The von Thünen model hypothesizes that perishability of the product and transportation costs to the market each factor into a farmer's decisions regarding agricultural practices.

The von Thünen model suggests that farmers’ choices depend on perishability and transportation costs. Perishable goods (e.g., dairy, vegetables) must reach the market quickly, so they are grown closer. Less perishable, bulkier goods (e.g., grain, livestock) can be transported longer distances, so they are produced farther away.

→ The model has four distinct concentric rings representing different agricultural practices. In the center is a core representing the market.

• The first ring outside the core represents intensive farming and dairying. These products cost more to transport, so having them produced closer to the market is a cost-saving measure.

• The next ring represents forests. In the 19th century, timber and firewood were important commodities used for heating, cooking, and building. Wood is heavy and bulky, so its weight would make it expensive to transport.

• The third ring is devoted to grains and cereal crops like rye, wheat, and barley-favored grains in 19th-century Germany. These crops are less perishable and not too bulky or heavy, so they can be grown farther from the market.

• In the von Thünen model, the outermost ring is used for livestock ranching because land is cheaper and less desirable. Since livestock can be raised extensively and walked to the market, transportation costs are lower compared to crops. This makes ranching the most suitable agricultural activity in distant areas.

Applying von Thunen today

Von Thünen made assumptions based on the realities of the early 19th century. Most of his assumptions don't apply to today's world

• Many cities have multiple centers of business, not just one. An isolated state that has not been influenced by outside cultures or events no longer exists.

• Some governments have introduced policies that favor the growing of certain crops over others, which influences what farmers grow.

• The development of this technology has permitted perishable items like eggs and dairy to be produced much farther from markets.

• Von Thünen could never have imagined the movement of produce over thousands of miles-like blueberries from Chile to stores in the United States.

• Time-space compression-the ability to quickly exchange goods across distances, as a result of more efficient transportation systems

13.4 Agricultural as global system

Agricultural independence

• Global supply chains: refers to the worldwide network of production, distribution, and delivery of goods and services. It involves multiple steps, including raw material sourcing, manufacturing, transportation, and retail, often spanning multiple countries.

• Commodity agricultural products, including wheat, corn, soybeans, and cotton along with coffee, tea, cacao, and vanilla, are traded through global supply chains.

→ The supply chains for some agricultural commodities start with production in a peripheral country where crops are grow and harvested using low-cost, local labor, allowing for reduced overall production costs.

The largest concentration of cacao farms are in peripheral countries like Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire.

Commodity dependency

Some peripheral countries struggle with developing and maintaining export economies and end u p becoming dependent one single export cash crop, a crop that is produced for its commercial value → just like in politics

→ The vanilla industry is one example. The island of Madagascar, off the coast of Africa, has three-quarters of the world's vanilla fields. Between 2016 and 2019, Madagascar has experienced small crop yields and devastating storms that have impacted vanilla production.

Infrastructure

Infrastructure includes communication systems; sewage, water, and electric systems; and most importantly roads and transportation for exporting goods.

Countries need to build main routes from agricultural, manufacturing, and production centers to airports and seaports to easily move and process imports and exports.

→ Sometimes core countries provide financial support to peripheral countries to improve their infrastructure, which is mutually beneficial.

Political relationships

Supply chains work best when trade partnerships are stable, reciprocal, and understood by al parties.

→ For example, Brexit, set to be finalized by 2021, in which the United Kingdom left the European Union (EU) on January 31, 2020, could have major implications for Britain's agricultural supply chain.

lot of what they eat, especially during the winter months. They import fresh fruits and vegetables from southern European countries, like Italy, and other countries around the world. With the EU's border system, imports travel seamlessly between member states. However, with Brexit, the supply chain could become broken.

New safety and document checks required at borders may cause delays.

→ Another example of how politics impacts a country's supply chain is the trade war between China and the United States that started in 2018 and was discussed earlier in this chapter. U.S. President Donald Trump imposed increased tariffs and other trade barriers on China, and China retaliated with tariffs of its own.

Many Chinese companies are not buying the tariffed products, which is resulting in a surplus for U.S. farmers and lower prices.

fair trade

movement that promotes sustainable and equitable trading relationships, particularly between producers in developing countries and consumers in developed nations. It focuses on ensuring fair wages, ethical labor practices, and environmentally sustainable production methods.

14.1 Consequences of agricultural practices

Shifting cultivation

agricultural landscapes: landscapes resulting from the interactions between farming activities and location’s natural environment.

Shifting cultivation Involves clearing a new plot of land when the previous one becomes less fertile. Farmers use the land for a few years, allowing it to regenerate naturally once it is abandoned.

→ mostly practiced in peripheral and semi-peripheral countries in south America, central and west Africa and Southeast Asia.

Crop rotation involves planting different crops in a specific sequence on the same plot of land over several seasons to maintain or improve soil fertility.

Shifting cultivation is commonly practiced on a small scale by indigenous peoples.

Shifting cultivation is indeed a crucial part of a larger agroecosystem, which refers to an ecosystem that has been modified or managed to support agricultural production.

→ Shifting cultivation, where farmers clear a large piece of land and move to a new area after a few years, is an example of extensive agriculture

Slash and burn

People most often practice slash and burn agriculture in tropical wet climates where dense vegetation covers the land. this method involves cutting and burning forests to create fields for crops.

Slash and burn farmers generally live on marginal land in the tropical rain forests of Latin America, Africa, and Asia.

→ slash and burn contributes to numerous environmental problems, including massive deforestation (loss of forest lands) and soil erosion -the wearing away of topsoil by wind, rain, and other phenomena.

Terracing

Terracing, which is commonly practiced by subsistence farmers, is the process of carving parts of a hill or mountainside into small, level growing plot.

errace farming is used primarily to manage the challenges of farming on steep or hilly land. The technique involves creating flat platforms or steps on the slopes of hills or mountains, which are often supported by walls made of stone, wood, or earth

In the case of the lfugao Rice Terraces in the Philippines, knowledge is passed down through generations to preserve this traditional and effective method of farming that i s a vital part of the community's survival and culture.

Irrigation

Irrigation supports both small subsistence farms and major commercial agriculture operations.

→ Reservoirs are one common source of irrigation for crops in the United States. These artifical lakes are created by building dams across streams and rivers.

Canals carry water from the reservoirs to the fields and orchards where it is needed. People have also rerouted natural water paths to aid irrigation.

Canals carry water from the reservoirs to the fields and orchards where it is needed. People have also rerouted natural water paths to aid irrigation.

→ Layers of underground sand, gravel, and rocks that contain and can release a usable amount of water are called aquifers. People tap into aquifers to access fresh water for both agriculture and household uses.

Chinese farmers use groundwater to irrigate crops with pumping systems reaching down more than 200 feet.

One advantage of groundwater is that the energy it requires is inexpensive and new technology makes it efficient.

Draining wetlands

Areas of land that are covered by or saturated with water-such as swamps, marshes, and bogs-are called wetlands.

The Netherlands stands out among countries that have used wetland reclamation to increase land for farming and habitation. Around 17 percent of the country's present land area was once under the sea or coastal wetland.

Drained wetlands can be converted into agricultural land, but this results in a significant loss of habitat for fish, waterfowl, and mammals.

Pastoral Nomadism

Like shifting cultivation, pastoral nomadism, also called nomadic herding, is an extensive practice and generally a form of subsistence agriculture.

Pastoral nomads are herders who move their animals seasonally or as needed to allow the best grazing.

This practice is common in regions with dry climates where farming crops is difficult or impossible, like parts of Southwest Asia, North Africa, and the Arctic.

Nomadic herders move their animals to different grazing zones, sometimes based on the season or the availability of resources. This helps to avoid overgrazing in one area and ensures that the land remains fertile for future use.

Overgrazing can cause land degradation, which is long-term damage to the soil's ability to support life.

Desertification: a form of land degradation that occurs when soil deteriorates to a desert-like condition-can be the result of poor pastoral nomadism practices in arid or semiarid lands.

Environmental consequences

Effects of agriculture on the landscape and soil include pollution, land cover change, soil salinization, and land degradation such as desertification.

Pollution

→ Runoff from fields may contain chemicals and nutrients from pesticides and fertilizers, as well as bacteria and disease-carrying organisms. Al of these can pollute and damage ecosystems.

The Gulf of Mexico "dead zone" is an area about the size of Massachusetts where most marine life has been killed by oxygen deprivation due to human-caused nutrient pollution.

Land cover change

how the surface of land is altered by different land uses-especially by the way humans use the land.

Terraced farming creates flat surfaces on steep slopes for growing crops, but a common problem is groundwater saturation. During heavy rains, water builds up in the soil and can’t drain properly, which can harm crops and cause erosion.
Deforestation caused by slash and burn agriculture is also land cover change.

In the summer of 2019, timber cutting and slash and burn operations in Brazil caused record-breaking forest fires in the Amazon region that are likely to leave massive tracts of land uncovered.

Soil Salinization

Irrigation, too, can lead to short-term a n d long-term environmental damage such as salinization, the process by which water-soluble salt build up in the soil.

When salts accumulate in the rot zone of a crop, the plants can no longer extract adequate water, which can in turn result in crop yield reductions.

Conservation and sustainability efforts

Conservation initiatives often use laws or education to encourage farmers to modify their practices.

→ For example, the effort to conserve water has led the government of Zambia, in southern Africa, to charge fees on groundwater use.

international lending agencies such as the World Bank have established debt-for-nature swaps with peripheral countries that borrow money.

In exchange for local investment in conservation measures, the banks agree to forgive a portion of a country's debt.

Commercial farming

In areas of the world where large, commercial agribusiness corporations dominate agricultural practices, conservation efforts set goals such as reducing air pollution from heavy machinery, encouraging better stewardship of water resources, and seeking to minimize the amount of toxins seeping int groundwater from chemical fertilizers and pesticides.

14.2 Challenges of contemporary agriculture

Genetically modified organism GMO is a living organism with genetic code that has been manipulated to produce certain desirable qualities.

→ Biotechnology: science of altering living organisms, often though genetic manipulation to create new products for specific purposes.

modern biotechnology supports genetic engineering ( GE ) a type of GM in which scientists transfer specific genes from one organism to another.

Biotechnology can result in improvements such as increased crop yields; resistance to drought, disease, and pests; and improved nutritional values.

Brazil's agricultural sector can be considered one example of a biotechnology success story. With soybeans, rice, and corn leading its list of important crops, Brazil benefited from the Green Revolution of the mid-20th century and more recently has been at the forefront of biotechnology applications.

→ high-yield seeds have allowed Brazil to nearly triple its grain production since the early 1980s even as the amount of land under cultivation has remained largely unchanged

• One potential global benefit of genetic engineering is a reduction in the cost of food production, which could lead to an increased supply of food

• Foods modified through GE have been banned in much of Europe because their safety has not been proven, and there are concerns about their effects on the species t h a t consume them, including humans.

Agricultural biodiversity: describes the variety and variability of plants, animals, and microorganisms that are used directly or indirectly for food or agriculture.

The criticism is that genetic engineering, specifically when bacterial genes are inserted into crops to act as a pesticide, could harm agricultural biodiversity.

Scientists may insert genes from bacteria into crops, making the crops produce a substance that kills insects when they eat the crop. The concern is that these crops can disrupt the local ecosystem. For example, the insect species that eat the crops and are killed by the bacteria are part of the food web in that ecosystem

→ Soil fertility, too, can be a concern. In general, soil fertility has declined with the intensification of food production, which means that land's productivity is lessened or threatened. This leads to farmers applying more synthetic fertilizers to keep up with the growing demand for key food crops.

Synthetic fertilizers build up in the soil, decreasing the soil's fertility and affecting surrounding organisms and their natural life cycles. Rain and sewage can carry fertilizers into bodies of water, which can create a toxic environment by increasing the growth of algae and decreasing oxygen levels.

Aquaculture

Aquaculture is another innovative branch of agriculture that has demonstrated advantages on several fronts.

→ This type of fish farming is less space- and care-intensive than other types o f agriculture and represents one of the fastest growing food production sectors in the world.

• Environmental Advantage: When shellfish are farmed in aquaculture, they not only provide a food source but also help improve the water quality by filtering out pollutants, excess nutrients, and other particles. This helps to keep the water cleaner, which benefits the overall ecosystem.

Water Pollution from Chemicals and Fish Waste:

• In aquaculture, chemicals like pesticides and fertilizers may be used to protect fish from diseases or help them grow. Additionally, the fish produce waste, which can accumulate in the water. Both these factors can contribute to water pollution, making the surrounding environment unhealthy.

To prevent diseases from spreading among farmed fish, aquaculture farms often use antibiotics. However, these antibiotics can sometimes end up in the water, affecting the surrounding ecosystem. This can potentially harm other species and contribute to antibiotic resistance, which makes it harder to treat diseases in both farmed and wild fish.

Precision agriculture

precision agriculture or precision farming is movement that is seen as fourth agricultural revolution.

• It is a modern farming approach that uses advanced technology to apply resources (like water, fertilizer, and pesticides) only where they are needed rather than spreading them evenly across an entire field.

• Instead of treating an entire farm the same way, precision farming recognizes that different areas of a field may have different needs. For example, some parts of a field might need more water, while others need less fertilizer. Precision farming helps target these areas accurately using technology.

→ By using drones or other remote sensing technologies to acquire data, farmers can employ GIS software to map their fields and develop a micro-level analysis of each field's physical characteristics.

These computer-based applications result in reduced expenses and higher yields

They also support environmentally friendly improvements such as water conservation and reductions in the amount of fertilizer applied to a field.

Fair trade and value-added crops

Fair trade is a movement that ensures farmers and workers in developing countries receive fair wages and better working conditions for the crops they grow (such as coffee, chocolate, tea, and bananas)

• Many consumers, especially millennials (people born roughly between 1981 and 1996), are willing to pay more for products labeled as fair trade because they want to support ethical farming practices and improve farmers’ lives.

• This demand pushes companies to offer fair trade-certified products, which can lead to better wages and living conditions for farmers.

What Are Value-Added Specialty Crops

• These are crops that are processed or changed from their original form to make them more valuable in the market.

Milk → Cheese or Yogurt (processing makes it more valuable).

Consumer demand for value-added products can be driven by the desire t o eat healthy, nutritious food, the need for convenience, or both. For example, many consumers buy yogurt because they enjoy the taste and believe it has health benefits.

14.3 Feeding the world

Food insecurity

Food security is reliable access to safe, nutritious food that can support a healthy and active lifestyle.

Food insecurity is the disruption of a household’s food intake or eating patterns because of poor access to food.

food insecurity is the result of distribution issues and economic decisions about what to do with the crops that are produced.

The study suggests that only 5% of global crop calories (like corn and grains) actually go directly to humans for food. Meanwhile, 36% is used to feed livestock, which is an inefficient way to produce food since animals consume more calories than they provide in return. Another 9% goes to biofuels and industrial uses

Another serious ongoing threat to Earth's ability to continue producing sufficient food is adverse weather-including severe storms, drought, and extreme temperatures - caused or intensified by climate change.

On the national level, instability and chronic poverty also contribute to food insecurity. The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), for example, is ranked as one of the least food-secure countries in the world o n t h e Global Food Security Index.

As cities expand and people move to the suburbs, farmland gets replaced by housing, roads, and commercial areas, reducing the amount of land available for food production. This is especially concerning given the growing global population and the increasing demand for food.

Food issues in the US

As suburbs have grown up around cities in the United States, land that was once cultivated by small-scale family farms has ben bought by developers to build suburban neighborhoods.

poverty and food insecurity are related but not the same thing. While low income is a major factor in food insecurity, other economic and social conditions also play a role.

Some individuals or families living below the poverty line might still have access to affordable food through family support, government aid, or community programs. Some families earn just enough to be above the poverty line but still struggle to afford food due to high living costs, medical bills, or other financial burdens

case study

food deserts: areas where residents lack access to healthy nutritious foods because stores selling these food are too far away.

the USDA defines "low-access communities" as places where at least 3 percent of the population live more than one mile from a supermarket or large grocery store.

Storage and transportation issues

Because of poor storage, processing, transportation, o r infrastructure, however, even short supply chains may break down, leading to food insecurity.

Many regions of Africa and Latin America, in particular, are seeing a rise in severe food insecurity due at least in part to transportation and storage issues.

By improving rural infrastructure (roads, storage, electrification), governments can strengthen the ability of farmers to develop sustainable businesses, reducing waste and increasing food aces.

Economy of scale

Economies of scale refer to the cost advantages that businesses experience as they increase production.

The more you produce, the cheaper it gets per unit.

For example, if a farmer buys a tractor for $100,000, they have to pay that amount whether they farm 10 acres or 1,000 acres.

• If they only farm 10 acres, the cost per acre for the tractor is $10,000.

• If they farm 1,000 acres, the cost per acre drops to $100.

Larger farms focus on one or two crops to maximize profits, using specialized technology. This makes production more efficient but leads to less crop diversity. As a result, food distribution is often dominated by a few major crops, reducing variety in what’s grown and sold.