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1. Question #1 can be answered by using the process of elimination. Some of the answers are absolute (a and c), leaving only one correct answer. 2. Look at question #2 and notice the plural - what changes occurred with introduction of heavy plow. This means you are looking for more than one answer which eliminates a, b, c and d right away! Then, you can use the process of elimination to help get you to the right answer. 3. Again, look at the singular vs. plural. I am asking you to pick one time period – not multiple ones. This eliminates choice “e.” In addition, we have spent the last few weeks highlighting the relative disconnect between science and technology in our first units on ancient civilizations, medieval society and the renaissance. This only leaves “d” as the correct choice.
Technology (NATS)
is a electronic based system where it allows the creation of various electronic creations such as the cell-phones etc
The idea of _________ tends to be connected to objects and limits perspective
Technology
Defining Technology
Term ____ used in the 17th century to describe study of industrial arts
popularized after WWII but use of ____ (or material) items can be traced to 2 million years ago
alternative terms to ____ used were "practical arts" "applied science" and engineering
Jacob Bigelow (1831)
Jacob Bigelow was an American physician and botanist.
He was a professor at Harvard Medical School.
Bigelow is known for his work in the field of medical botany.
He authored the book "American Medical Botany."
He introduced the concept of using plants for medicinal purposes.
Bigelow was a pioneer in the field of medical education in the United States.
He played a key role in the establishment of the Massachusetts General Hospital.
Bigelow was a prominent figure in the early 19th-century medical community.
He contributed to the development of medical science and education in America.
Bigelow's work had a lasting impact on the field of botany and medicine.
Rethinking Tech and Success and Failure
Term tech used in the 17th century to describe study of industrial arts
popularized after WWII but use of tech (or material) items can be traced to _ 2 million years ago
alternative terms to technology used were "practical arts" "applied science" and engineering
Theories about Technology
Tech Determinism, Applied Science and Ecomonic Needs
Write out 3 lines key information for tech determinism
belief that technology shapes and controls society.
It suggests that technological advancements drive social change.
Critics argue that it oversimplifies complex social dynamics and ignores human agency.
Explaination of Tech in a Evoultionairy Standpoint
Once an object is invented, this artifact “transforms” society and human interaction; human agents have almost no control over a technology once it has been built
Idea that technology is the “cause” of social, political, economic and cultural change is the central element in determinist theories of technological change
Technology is thus the “driving force of history” that can have a revolutionary impact on relatively passive societies
With determinism, the relationship between technology and society is a ONE-WAY STREET
Hard versus soft determinism
Simplicity
Ideas of technological determinism are everywhere in popular discourse, and one reason is because the theory offers people simple, easy to understand ideas about very complex events in society
In each case a complex event is made to seem the “inescapable yet strikingly plausible” result of technology use
Examples Include: the birth control pill “caused” the sexual revolution of the 1960s, the internet “caused” the rise of Arab spring
Technological determinists have been criticized for simplifying what is a far more complex relationship between society and technological change
Humans and Technology (Lack of Control)
when technologies appear to be out of control, humans are “absolved” of their own responsibilities regarding technology use
Determinists thus fail to see technologies as part of a pattern of social and culture use
Example: the introduction of new machines caused the company to lay off 100 employees
Alternatve theories
Theories such as the social construction of technology (SCOT) and the social shaping of technology (SST) have been developed to refute technological determinism
With these theories, human agency determines the shape of new technologies
Generally, these theorists argue that determinists place technology outside society, neglect to account for the human factor in technological innovation, and absolve humans of any responsibility in terms of technology use
technology as applied science
Technology is the practical application of scientific knowledge.
It involves the use of tools, machines, and techniques to solve problems and improve efficiency.
Technology has greatly impacted various fields such as communication, transportation, healthcare, and entertainment.
It has led to the development of advanced devices like smartphones, computers, and robots.
Technology has revolutionized industries by automating processes and increasing productivity.
It has enabled global connectivity through the internet and telecommunications.
Technology has improved medical treatments and diagnostics, leading to better healthcare outcomes.
It has transformed the way we communicate, allowing instant messaging and video calls.
Technology has made transportation faster, safer, and more convenient with innovations like airplanes and electric vehicles.
It has provided new forms of entertainment, such as virtual reality and streaming services.
Economic Needs
This theory presents an economic approach to technological development - technologies are created according to societal needs or wants
While this may be true for a certain category of invention, there are THREE (3) major criticisms of this idea:
A: Technologies are created for reasons other than “need.” (many reasons besides need, could be selfish or loving reasons)
B: Time Lag Argument (tech dev ober history many techs are created in one time)
C: Can’t assume inventors know how their technologies will be used society
Necessity Theory - Criticisms
Ecomonic Necessity
Example: windmills introduced into England around 1185 but spread only in 13th century after landowners thought they could be profitable venture
One big misconception about technological development is that inventors know what their technologies will be used for
Often, inventors may not actually know how users will respond to their technology – uses are not fixed or predictable
instead of inventors, it is often users themselves that determine how a technology will be used and what shape it will take
This leads to unintended consequences of using new technologies
The term “user” can refer to different groups such as consumers or amateur hobbyists
social, cultural, political, legal factors play large role in success or failure of new techs
Prime examples of users shaping new technology include: telephone, radio, personal computers, internet
Economic Necessity (Cont’d)
Have certain technologies have been designed or created in favor of one gender over another?
How have technologies been used to exploit or oppress different cultures throughout history and in modern times?
Examples: Robert Moses, highway bridges and the question of racial segregation in New York; technology during the age of Imperialism, Nazi science and WWII; eugenics and intelligence testing, Rosalind Franklin and the race to find the structure of DNA
What is the relationship between religion and technology?
How have technologies been used in the name of religion or to justify religious oppression and inequality?
Examples: Ancient and Greece science, technology and religion in the Medieval World, Industrialization and the exploitation of natural world
natural philosophy is the grandparent or precursor of ______ ___ _______
modern day science
knowledge for knowledge’ sake:
Starting with the Greeks, there was a great disconnect between natural philosophy (science) and technology, with science being regarded as the more worthwhile pursuit
For the first half of this course, we will examine why people regarded these disciplines as separate and how they grew closer over time
Today, there is no question that there is a close connection between science and technology, but people debate about the degree of closeness
some see the relationship as so intimately connected that it is impossible to separate the two (techno-science), while others see science and technology as two distinct activities with their own methods, norms and communities
what was the significane of european farmers moving from a 2-field rotation syste, to a 3-field rotation system?
a three field rotation system increased food production by 30 to 50%
The european agricultural revolution saw the intro of new tools and techniques of production throughout the continent. What changes occured with the introduction of the heavy plow?
The heavy plow facliated req more power animal power and fac the dev of communal agriculture
Christianity
How it ties to the western world and tech and civil
Renaissance means rebirth
Regained and Rediscovered
Why are some tech’s more successful in some parts in the world in comparison to others?
Gun powder (used in China for fireworks and became a weapon in the USA)
The compass was built in China and now it’s used as navigation
Printing press was also developed in China but took off in ______
Europe
Chinese characters were hard to reproduce
huge scribe communities
Was a force in suppressing inventions
Mechincal clock used for
Keeping time
fall of Constantinople to Turkish army in 1453
era associated with travel, adventure and navigation
Status - Changes of Attitudes
natural philosophy -> natural science
Instead, there was an increased interest in using natural philosophy findings to gain individual wealth, status and power
another change was the transition from natural philosophy to what we call “modern science” today
Power, Wealth and Status were huge aspects in the new development of knowledge rather than simply for the sake of learning
new social spaces
Think of social spaces as places where people from different disciplines came together and shared their knowledge and ideas with each other
Such spaces increase included both natural philosophers and engineers
Examples of social spaces in the Renaissance were pubs, coffeehouses and salons
hybrid humans
refers to individuals who had an interest in both natural philosophy and the technical arts
Prior to this time, hybrid humans were few and far between as most natural philosophers had little interest in tech
At 14 began ten year apprenticeship with Andrea del Verrocchico who was sculptor and painter - learned math, architecture, sculpture and painting
Da Vinci’s is an example of changing attitudes
Engineering drawings focused on both civilian but especially military technologies (eg. Gunpowder weapons, firearms, crossbows, cannons, bridges, chariots with rotating daggers)
technological dreams
Galileo
(1564-1642) was an Italian scientist and astronomer known for his groundbreaking contributions to the field of astronomy. He built one of the first telescopes and used it to make significant observations, such as discovering the moons of Jupiter and the phases of Venus. His support for the heliocentric model of the solar system, proposed by Copernicus, brought him into conflict with the Catholic Church, leading to his trial by the Inquisition. Galileo’s work laid the foundation for modern astronomy and the scientific method.
Openness and Accessability in Science and Technical Info
openness refers to publications
Accessablity means how much people are able to access it
Printing Press has been impactful to help us evolve our world because
hand copy a book was only the way to make a book (translation creates inaccuracies)
Eisenstein’s Argument
scholars rarely questioned textual info
when transitioning to print, scholars spent more time reading and building upon older theories of knowledge rather than copying and memorizing texts
scholars could compare versions of a text with their colleagues in other regions of the world; this could help eliminate errors increased confidence in reliability of texts
Encouraged scholars to publish their own ideas with the gain of print press
Example: Copernicus came up his heliocentric theory because he was freed from task of copying tables and charts as he had more time to reflect; he also access to more resources (eg. Arab astronomy)
Eisenstein also contends that print changed way illustrations used and interpreted in science - prior to print it was difficult to reproduce pictures as hand-drawn images would become distorted over long periods of time
With print, illustrations were standardized and used to augment scientific info
Weaknesses of Eisenstein’s Argument
Eisenstein has been accused of presenting a technological deterministic way of examining effects or impact of print
Critics like Adrian Johns suggests she places too much emphasis on “preservative” powers of print and does not believe that print gave people greater confidence in what they were reading
He also states that Eisenstein errs in assuming all printed works were alike, and that new editions were “fixed” in terms of text, format and appearance
Most printed books were initially taken from scribal texts and errors present in these scribal texts would have been transferred to print and would not have been “eliminated” right away
Piracy and plagiarism were also rampant in print culture
To combat problem, many social conventions established to verify authenticity and truthfulness of print materials such as establishment Registrars, licensing privileges, royal patronage
This means that print didn’t necessarily legitimize knowledge; legitimacy of printed works done through “social” solutions like these Registrars
Nature as a living organism
prevailing view of nature until 16th century was that nature was a living organism
Nature (earth) was compared to nurturing mother
Carolyn Merchant: nature seen as “kindly, beneficent female who provided for needs of mankind in an ordered, planned universe
Francis Bacon
(1561-1626) best exemplifies changing attitudes towards nature and technology during Enlightenment period
Trained as lawyer; political advisor to Elizabeth I and Lord Chancellor for James I
Bacon not an engineer or natural philosopher but scientific reformer
Believed past knowledge was “flawed” and created a new system to gain “true” knowledge
Developed hierarchical approach to obtaining knowledge about the universe and emphasized process of induction
Rejected idea of “knowledge for knowledge sake” and believed that scientific knowledge should be put to practical use in service of state: “truth and usefulness are (in this kind) the very same things”
Bacon had great respect for craft knowledge (technology) and criticized scholars like Aristotle who downplayed this knowledge
Most of Bacon’s ideas best exemplified in his story “The New Atlantis”
Francis Bacon (Domination over Nature and Misogyny)
Bacon believed that dominating nature would benefit mankind and his ideas have been studied by many feminist historians of science who have called his work misogynistic
considered fall from Garden of Eden cause of man’s loss of natural “dominion over creation” (domination over nature)
He believed that exploitation of nature with mechanical technologies would reverse this
Saw science and technology as “servants” of Christianity – they were tools you needed to study and dominate nature
Bacon often described natural world in feminine terms that were not as respectful as earlier ideas of “Mother Nature”
Claimed nature had three states: liberty, error, and bondage
Saw science and technology as “servants” of Christianity – they were tools you needed to study and dominate nature
Bacon often described natural world in feminine terms that were not as respectful as earlier ideas of “Mother Nature”
Claimed nature had three states: liberty, error, and bondage
Sexual implications of Bacon’s language seen as problematic by feminist historians who claim his description of nature is similar rape: “neither ought a man to make scruple of entering and penetrating into these holes and corners, when the inquisition of truth is his whole object”
Idea of interrogating nature may have come from courtroom experiences with witch trials, which were also an example of misogyny
Historians like Lynn White once argued that this idea of human superiority over nature (found in Judaic-Christian religious thought) were at the root of today’s modern-day ecological crisis
Dutch Republic, Technology and the Age of Commerce
Age of Commerce vs. Age of Industrialization:
Age of Commerce is characterized by the production of low volume, high-quality goods with high wages for workers.
Age of Industrialization involves the production of high volume, low-quality goods with lower wages for workers.
Dutch Republic's Role:
The Dutch Republic became a central hub for trade and technology development related to commerce.
They specialized in refining imported raw materials and selling them at a higher price.
They focused on ship designs suitable for export and trade, such as the Fluyt and Herring Busses.
Dutch Society and Economic Structures:
Dutch society evolved around an international trading economy.
They established commodity exchanges, public exchange banks, and stock exchanges that set global prices for goods.
The Dutch also engaged in futures speculation, even on goods like tulips.
Why the Dutch Republic didn't become the first industrial nation:
Lack of access to raw materials, leading to dependence on imports.
Disruptions in international trade and constant invasions.
Protectionist policies that impacted traffic industries.
In summary, the Dutch Republic played a significant role in the Age of Commerce by excelling in international trade, technology, and economic structures, but it faced challenges that prevented it from becoming the first industrialized nation, such as limited access to raw materials and external disruptions.
The Dark Ages
Key Invention: The Stirrup - revolutionized cavalry warfare and provided stability and control to mounted knights.
Key Development: Gothic Architecture - characterized by pointed arches, ribbed vaults, and flying buttresses, allowing for taller and more intricate buildings.
Key Innovation: The Watermill - improved efficiency in grinding grain and sawing wood, leading to increased productivity and economic growth.
Key Impact: The Printing Press - facilitated the mass production of books, leading to the spread of knowledge and the democratization of information.
Natural Philosophy and Christanity (Summary)
Natural Philosophy:
Definition: Study of the natural world using observation and experimentation
Key Figures: Aristotle, Galileo Galilei, Isaac Newton
Key Concepts: Laws of motion, gravity, scientific method
Impact: Foundation for modern science, influenced fields like physics and astronomy
Christianity:
Definition: Monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ
Key Figures: Jesus Christ, Apostle Paul, Martin Luther
Key Beliefs: Salvation through faith in Jesus, Trinity, resurrection
Impact: One of the world's largest religions, shaped Western civilization, influenced art and literature
China's Golden Age of Technology
refers to a period when remarkable advancements were made in various fields such as agriculture, engineering, and medicine. It was characterized by innovations like the invention of paper, the compass, and gunpowder, which greatly influenced global development.
Technology in Medieval Europe
The printing press was invented by Johannes Gutenberg in the 15th century.
The mechanical clock was developed in the 14th century.
The use of gunpowder in warfare became widespread during the 13th century.
Windmills were commonly used for grinding grain and pumping water.
The astrolabe was used for navigation and astronomical measurements.
The first eyeglasses were invented in the late 13th century.
The use of watermills for grinding grain and powering machinery.
The development of the compass greatly improved navigation.
The use of paper became more common in the 13th century.
The first mechanical clocks were powered by weights and gears.
Who is credited with inventing the mechanical clock?
Muslim engineer and inventor, Al-Jazari, who created it in the 13th century.
Early Civilzations
Urban Revolution – 6000 years ago
Where? At least six different centers around the world: Mesopotamia (after 3500 BC); Egypt (after 3400 BC); Indus River Valley (after 2500 BC); Yellow River in China (after 1800 BC); Mesoamerica (500 BC); South America (after 300 BC)
Characteristics: high populations, centralized political and economic authority, regional states, stratified societies, complex architecture, higher learning
Hydraulic Hypothesis
The Hydraulic Hypothesis suggests that plants transport water from their roots to their leaves through a system of tubes. This process is similar to how water is transported through a straw when you sip a drink.
Mesopotamia
The ancient civilization that flourished between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, known for its advanced irrigation systems and development of cuneiform writing. It was home to the city-states of Babylon, Ur, and Nineveh, and witnessed the rise and fall of powerful empires like the Sumerians, Akkadians, and Assyrians.
Egypt
located in northeastern Africa, is one of the world's oldest civilizations. It was ruled by pharaohs, such as Tutankhamun and Cleopatra, and is known for its iconic pyramids, including the Great Pyramid of Giza. The Nile River played a crucial role in the development of Egyptian society, providing fertile land for agriculture and facilitating trade and transportation.
Early Civilizations vs Greek Civilizations
Example: In the early civilizations, societies like the Sumerians in Mesopotamia developed complex irrigation systems to support agriculture. They built ziggurats as religious centers and used cuneiform writing. In contrast, Greek civilizations, such as the city-states of Athens and Sparta, established democratic governments and valued philosophy, art, and athletics. They built magnificent temples like the Parthenon and used an alphabet-based writing system.
Natural Philosophy and Technology in Ancient Greece
During ancient Greece, scholars explored the natural world through observation and experimentation. For instance, they developed devices like the water clock to measure time accurately. This intersection of natural philosophy and technology allowed them to study celestial movements and build instruments to enhance their understanding of the universe.
Technology in the Roman Empire
During the Roman Empire, advanced engineering techniques were employed to construct impressive structures like the Colosseum. The innovative use of arches and concrete allowed for the creation of large, durable buildings. These technological advancements revolutionized architecture and influenced future construction methods worldwide.
Decline of Greco-Roman Civilization
During the decline of Greco-Roman civilization, there was a significant loss of centralized political power and a decline in economic prosperity. This can be seen in the disintegration of the Roman Empire, as well as the weakening of trade networks and urban infrastructure. Additionally, the spread of Christianity and the invasions of barbarian tribes further contributed to the decline of this once-thriving civilization.
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