Key Concepts in Classical and Operant Conditioning

Unconditioned Stimulus

Food

Unconditioned Response

Salivation

Neutral Stimulus

Bell

Conditioned Stimulus

After conditioning, the bell becomes a conditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Response

Salivation at the sound of the bell

Classical Conditioning Effects

Taste Aversion, Extinction, Spontaneous Recovery, Generalization, Discrimination

Positive Reinforcement

Adding something pleasant to encourage behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing something unpleasant to encourage behavior.

Punishment

Applying something unpleasant to decrease behavior.

Reward

Strengthening behavior by giving a positive consequence.

Types of Memory

Episodic, Semantic, Implicit

Episodic Memory

Memory of specific events (flashbulb memories).

Semantic Memory

Memory of facts, words, and concepts.

Implicit Memory

Skills and habits not clearly stated.

Ways Memories are Stored

Maintenance Rehearsal, Elaborative Rehearsal, Organizational Systems

Maintenance Rehearsal

Mechanical or rote repetition to keep from forgetting.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Relating new information to what you already know.

Organizational System

Structuring information into a system to remember it.

Stages of Memory

Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory, Long-Term Memory

Sensory Memory

Immediate, initial recording of data through the senses.

Short-Term Memory

Working memory; holds a small amount of information temporarily.

Long-Term Memory

Relatively permanent storage of information.

Extreme Forgetting

Repression and Amnesia

Repression

Forgetting memories on purpose (Freud's idea).

Retrograde Amnesia

Forgetting the period leading up to a traumatic event.

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories after trauma.

Infantile Amnesia

Forgetting early childhood memories due to brain development.

Ways of Improving Memory

Drill Practice, Relating to Existing Knowledge, Forming Unusual Associations, Using Mnemonic Devices

Drill Practice

Going over and over information (repetition).

Relating New Information to Existing Knowledge

Connecting new material to what you already know.

Forming Unusual Associations

Linking information to something odd or humorous.

Mnemonic Devices

Tools like acronyms or jingles to help remember information.

Types of Thinking

Convergent Thinking, Divergent Thinking, Metacognition

Convergent Thinking

Narrowing down to the best possible solution.

Divergent Thinking

Generating many possible solutions or ideas.

Metacognition

Thinking about your own thinking.

Problem-Solving Methods

Trial and Error, Difference Reduction, Means-End Analysis, Working Backward, Using Analogies

Trial and Error

Trying different solutions until one works.

Difference Reduction

Moving closer to a goal by reducing the difference.

Means-End Analysis

Using certain steps (means) to achieve certain results (ends).

Working Backward

Starting at the goal and working back to the starting point.

Using Analogies

Solving new problems by comparing them to similar past problems.

Obstacles to Problem Solving

Mental Set and Functional Fixedness

Mental Set

Approaching a new problem in the same old way even if it doesn't work.

Functional Fixedness

Seeing objects only in their usual use.

Deductive reasoning

Going from a general rule to a specific case (always true if premises are true).

Inductive reasoning

Going from specific cases to a general conclusion (hypothesis, more of a guess).

Four basic elements of language

Phonemes, Morphemes, Syntax, Semantics.

Phonemes

Smallest units of sound.

Morphemes

Smallest units of meaning.

Syntax

Rules for grammar and sentence structure.

Semantics

Meaning behind words and sentences.

Five theories of intelligence

Spearman's Two-Factor Theory, Thurstone's Primary Mental Abilities, Gardner's Multiple Intelligences, Sternberg's Triarchic Theory, Emotional Intelligence.

Spearman's Two-Factor Theory

General intelligence (g) and specific abilities (s).

Thurstone's theory

7 primary mental abilities (word fluency, reasoning, etc.).

Gardner's theory

9 types of intelligences (verbal, logical, musical, etc.).

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

Analytical, creative, and practical intelligence.

Emotional intelligence

Self-awareness, regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills.

How is intelligence measured

Stanford-Binet Scale and Wechsler Scales (WAIS/WISC).

Formula for IQ on the Stanford-Binet Scale

IQ = (Mental Age ÷ Chronological Age) × 100.

Three types of awareness

Sensory Awareness, Direct Inner Awareness, Sense of Self.

Sensory awareness

Awareness of your environment through senses.

Direct inner awareness

Awareness of thoughts and emotions without stimuli.

Sense of self

Awareness of yourself as an individual.

Different levels of consciousness

Preconscious, Unconscious, Nonconscious, Altered States.

Preconscious

Memories not currently in mind but easily recalled.

Unconscious

Hidden memories and desires.

Nonconscious

Biological processes like breathing.

Altered state of consciousness

A change in awareness, such as sleep, hypnosis, or meditation.

Six sleep problems

Insomnia, Sleep Apnea, Nightmares/Night Terrors, Sleepwalking, Narcolepsy, Sleep Paralysis.

Insomnia

Difficulty falling or staying asleep.

Sleep apnea

Breathing stops and starts during sleep.

Nightmares

Unpleasant dreams that wake you up.

Night terrors

Sudden intense fear and thrashing during sleep.

Sleepwalking

Walking or doing activities while asleep (somnambulism).

Narcolepsy

Sudden, uncontrollable attacks of sleep.

Sleep paralysis

Being awake but unable to move or speak temporarily.

Stimulants

Drugs that increase nervous system activity (ex: caffeine, nicotine, cocaine).

Depressants

Drugs that slow down nervous system activity (ex: alcohol, barbiturates).

Opioids

Drugs that mimic endorphins and reduce pain (ex: morphine, heroin).

Hallucinogens

Drugs that cause hallucinations (ex: LSD, marijuana).

Beta waves

Brain waves when awake and alert.

Alpha waves

Brain waves when drowsy and relaxed.

Theta waves

Brain waves during light sleep.

Delta waves

Brain waves during deep sleep.

Stage 1 sleep duration

5-10 minutes.

Stage 2 sleep

Light sleep; appearance of sleep spindles.

Stage 3 sleep

Beginning of deep sleep; transition to Delta Waves.

Stage 4 sleep

Deepest sleep; mostly Delta Waves.

Stage 4 sleep duration

20-45 minutes.

First REM sleep occurrence

About 90 minutes after falling asleep.

First REM sleep duration

About 10 minutes.

What happens during REM sleep

Rapid Eye Movement; vivid dreams; brain looks awake (beta waves).

One full sleep cycle duration

About 90 minutes.

Sleep cycles in 8 hours

5-6 cycles.