AP Psych Unit 2

Perception

The process of interpreting sensory information.

Bottom-up processing

Interpreting based on raw sensory data.

Top-down processing

Interpreting using expectations and prior knowledge.

Schemas

Mental frameworks that organize information.

Perceptual set

A mental bias that makes you perceive things a certain way.

Attention

Focusing mental awareness on certain stimuli.

Selective attention

Focusing on one thing while ignoring others.

Cocktail party effect

You notice your name even in noisy environments.

Inattentional blindness

Missing something because your attention is elsewhere.

Change blindness

Not noticing big changes in your environment.

Gestalt psychology

The idea that we perceive whole patterns, not just parts.

Closure

Filling in missing information to see a whole image.

Figure and ground

Distinguishing a main object from its background.

Grouping

Organizing stimuli into meaningful patterns.

Proximity

Grouping things that are close together.

Similarity

Grouping things that look alike.

Depth perception

The ability to see the world in 3D.

Visual cliff

A device testing depth perception in infants.

Binocular cues

Depth cues requiring both eyes.

Convergence

Eyes turning inward for close objects.

Retinal disparity

Different images from each eye help judge depth.

Monocular cues

Depth cues using one eye.

Relative clarity

Clearer objects seem closer.

Relative size

Larger objects appear closer.

Texture gradient

Less detail means farther away.

Linear perspective

Parallel lines appear to meet in the distance.

Interposition

Objects blocking others appear closer.

Perceptual constancies

Objects stay the same despite changes in lighting or angle.

Color constancy

We perceive colors as constant in different lighting.

Perceptual adaptation

Adjusting to changed visual input.

Apparent motion

Seeing movement that isn’t really there.

Stroboscopic movement

Fast images look like motion (like animation).

Phi phenomenon

Lights blinking in sequence look like movement.

Autokinetic effect

Still light appears to move in darkness.

Cognition

Mental processes like thinking and problem-solving.

Metacognition

Thinking about your thinking.

Concept

A mental category for grouping similar things.

Prototype

The best example of a concept in your mind.

Assimilation

Fitting new info into existing schemas.

Accommodation

Changing schemas to fit new info.

Executive functions

Mental skills for planning and controlling behavior.

Algorithm

A step-by-step method that guarantees a solution.

Heuristic

A quick shortcut to solve problems.

Representativeness heuristic

Judging based on how much something matches a prototype.

Availability heuristic

Judging based on how easily examples come to mind.

Mental set

Sticking to old ways of solving a problem.

Framing

How information is presented affects decisions.

Nudge

Small changes that influence choices.

Gambler’s fallacy

Believing chance events are “due” to change.

Sunk-cost fallacy

Continuing something because you already invested time/money.

Functional fixedness

Seeing objects only for their usual purpose.

Insight

A sudden realization of a solution.

Confirmation bias

Seeking info that supports your beliefs.

Fixation

Getting stuck on one way of thinking.

Intuition

Quick, automatic thinking.

Overconfidence

Overestimating your own accuracy.

Belief perseverance

Sticking to beliefs even when evidence disproves them.

Creativity

Producing new and useful ideas.

Divergent thinking

Generating many possible solutions.

Convergent thinking

Narrowing to one best solution.

Memory

The system for storing and recalling information.

Explicit memory

Conscious memories you can describe.

Episodic memory

Memories of personal experiences.

Semantic memory

Memories of facts and knowledge.

Implicit memory

Unconscious memories like skills.

Procedural memory

Memory for actions and routines.

Prospective memory

Remembering to do things in the future.

Neurogenesis

Growth of new neurons.

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

Strengthening of neural connections through use.

Working memory

Active processing of information you’re using now.

Visuospatial sketchpad

Holds visual and spatial info.

Phonological loop

Holds sound-based info.

Central executive

Supervises and organizes working memory.

Sensory memory

Brief storage of sensory information.

Iconic memory

Visual sensory memory.

Echoic memory

Auditory sensory memory.

Multi-store model

Memory goes from sensory → short-term → long-term.

Shallow processing

Encoding based on surface features.

Deep processing

Encoding based on meaning.

Automatic processing

Unconscious encoding of routine info.

Effortful processing

Requires attention and effort.

Encoding

Getting information into memory.

Storing

Keeping information in memory.

Retrieval

Getting information back out.

Structural processing

Encoding based on appearance.

Phonemic processing

Encoding based on sound.

Semantic processing

Encoding based on meaning.

Encode

Turning information into a memory.

Mnemonic devices

Memory aids like acronyms or images.

Method of loci

Remembering by linking items to locations.

Chunking

Grouping items into meaningful units.

Categories

Grouping items by type.

Hierarchies

Organizing information from general to specific.

Spacing effect

Spaced-out studying works better than cramming.

Massed practice

Cramming information all at once.

Distributed practice

Spreading study sessions over time.

Serial position effect

Remembering first and last items best.

Primacy effect

Remembering the first items.

Recency effect

Remembering the last items.

Short-term memory

Holds small amounts of info briefly.