WJEC Psychology Unit 2 and 4

Research Methods

The way something is investigated/ a method that you use to carry out research

Subjective

Opinion, non scientific and can't be replicated

Objective

Based on data, can be replicated, more scientific and accepted as fact because interpreted same way by everyone

Ethics

Rules/standards governing conduct of a person or members of profession

Valid consent

Inform participants about purpose of research, duration and right to withdraw

Confidentiality

Participant's anonymity must be protected and not identifiable through findings

Risk of harm

Treated with respect dignity and have rights prioritised, don't expose participants to any harm

Deception

Not lied to unless renders study pointless (DC+SDB)

Privacy

Right to control flow of information about themselves

Right to withdraw

right to leave a study at any time and ability to do so

Debriefing

Informed of true nature of study, necessary to deceive them and why

Ethics committees

Decide if study is conducted or not, weigh up costs and benefits

Punishment

BPS May ban psychologist from practice if behave in unethical way

Risk to the participants' values, beliefs, relationships, status or privacy

Must not be affected by study

Working with vulnerable individuals

Children under 16 and adults with mental illnesses or learning difficulties require consent from parent or guardians

Working with animals

Only used if no alternative and keep suffering justified and to a minimum

Basic principles of working with animals

1. conform to animals act 1986
2. 3Rs
3. Animals specific to research
4. Care for animals - companions
5. normal food and metabolic requirements met

3R's

replacement (full and partial), reduction, refinement

Operationalisation

How you are going to measure the dependant variable

Variables

factors that change in an experiment

independent variable

variable that is manipulated

Dependant variable

the thing you measure

Co-variables

The variables investigated in a correlational study

Aim

Statement about general purpose of the study

Hypothesis

Predictive testable statement about relationship between 2 variables

Null

There will be no significant difference

Experimental

There will be a significant difference

Correlational

relationship between two variables

Directional

States direction of difference

Nondirectional

No direction of difference

target population

the whole group you want to study

Representative

Sample reflects characteristics of target population accurately

Generalisable

The results from a study can be applied to the target population because the sample was representative

Sampling Method

the process used to choose the sample from the population

Opportunity sampling

selecting people who are most easily available at the time of the study

Strengths of opportunity sampling

Quick easy and cheap

Weaknesses of opportunity sampling

Biased sample, not representative because shared characteristics

Random Sampling

Use random technique to choose participants

Strengths of random sampling

Prevents bias because equal chance

Weaknesses of random sampling

Time consuming and not as representative

snowball sampling

Referral from initial participants

Strengths of snowball sampling

Large sample, good way to access hard to reach groups, easier for matched pairs and less researcher bias

Weaknesses of snowball sampling

Biased because shared characteristics

Self selected sampling

a group of participants who volunteered

Strengths of self selected sampling

Consent, quick and easy, more likely to stay in study

Weaknesses of self selected sampling

Not representative and biased

stratified sampling

subgroups are identified in target population, participants selected randomly from each strata in proportion to occurrence

Strengths of stratified sampling

Most representative due to the proportional representation of subgroups and less chance of researcher bias

Weaknesses of stratified sampling

Time consuming

Quota sampling

Similar to a stratified sample except participants are not selected from strata using a random sampling technique

Strengths of quota sampling

Less bias than other methods and quicker than stratified

Weaknesses of quota sampling

Not as representative as stratified

systematic sampling

Every nth item in the target population is selected

Strengths of systematic sampling

Less bias

Weaknesses of systematic sampling

time consuming

Quantitative data

expressed as numbers, obtained by counting or measuring

Strengths of quantitative data

Objective, easy to represent and compare

Weaknesses of quantitative data

Lacks detail

qualitative data

In depth and rich data give insight into participants thoughts and beliefs

Strengths of qualitative data

In depth and detailed

Weaknesses of qualitative data

Subjective and not generalisable or representative

Reliability

Extent to which a method of measurement or study can produce consistent findings across situations or time and how replicable the study is

Factors that affect reliability

1. lack of control of extraneous variable
2. use of standardized procedures
3. use of objective/quantitative data

internal reliability

The extent to which a test/measure is consistent within itself

Internal reliability assessment

Split half method - responses split in half and compared

External reliability

Extent to which a test produces consistent results over several occasions

External reliability assessment

Test retest method - same test sometime later

Interrater reliability

extent to which different observers are able to observe and write/code the same behaviour in the same way

Validity

the extent to which a test measures what it intends to measure

internal validity

Findings are accurate and effects on DV are caused by IV therefore measures what it intends to

external validity

Whether study paints true picture of real life behaviours and findings apply to different places times or people

Population validity

Are findings generalisable to all

Ecological validity

Is research generalisable to everyday life

Historical validity

If study conducted long time ago, is it still generalisable to todays society

Factors affecting validity

Extraneous variables and confounding variables

Extraneous variables

Variable other than IV and DV that's controlled

Confounding variables

Extraneous variables not controlled and affect results

Types of confounding variables

Researcher bias, demand characteristics and social desirability bias

Researcher bias

Researcher either directly or indirectly influences results, design or methods

Demand Characteristics

Unconsciously work out aim and act differently

Social Desirability Bias

Give response they think will show them in best possible light

Overcoming issues with validity

1. double-blind procedure - Neither participants nor research know true aim
2. use neutral questions
3. independent measures design - participants only compete in one condition
4. psychologists explain importance of providing accurate and honest responses
5. change location and nature of task
6. vary order of tasks - avoid order effects

Assessing validity

methods of checking internal or external validity of a study

Method of assessing validity - Face validity

Does the test (at face value) appear to measure what it claims?

Subjective

When does a test have high face validity?

The purpose is clear even to naïve respondents (don’t know aim of the study)

Method of assessing validity - Predictive validity

Do the scores on the test predict what you would expect them to predict?

i.e confirm hypothesis?

Method of assessing validity - Content validity

Does your measure, accurately and fairly measure your intended content?

Objectively checks whether method of measuring behavior is accurate and decides whether it is a fair test which achieves the aims of the study

How can content validity be assessed?

Ask an expert in that specific area of behavior to check if the test is valid

Method of assessing validity - Concurrent validity

How does the proposed measurement for the behavior match with a previously validated one on the same topic?

When does a test have high concurrent validity?

If similar results occur on both the new and past test

If a test has low concurrent validity

New test would have to be redesigned and carried out

Construct validity

Does the test measure the target construct?

e.g. if looking at stress management, are questions relevant to the construct (stress definition)

Lab research

Room equipped to allow scientific research and measurement (experimental or observational)

Strengths of Lab research

Lacks extraneous variables, easy to control, objective, high reliability and high internal validity

Weaknesses of Lab research

Low ev and high sdb

field research

Data collected outside lab, more natural setting

Strengths of Field Research

High ev, low sdb

Weaknesses of Field Research

Extraneous/confounding variables, harder to control, lack of consent

online research

Newest, websites, social media eg questionnaire

Strengths of online research

Easy, quick, cheap, large samples