Functional Groups and Biomolecules

What do functional groups determine?

how a molecule behaves as it gives functionality to specific molecules?

What functional groups are we concerned with?

Hydroxyl, Carbonyl, Carboxyl, Amino, Phosphate, and Methyl

What group?

hydrophilic or hydrophobic? this makes it?

where are they typically found? do they dissolve?

hydroxyl

hydrophilic due to polar covalent bond as O is more electronegative

sugars and alcohols like glycerol, methanyl, so they dissolve in water

What group?

• how is it characterized?

• what are its two types? what is the difference?

• polar or non?

• where can it be found

Carbonyl

characterized by C double bond with O

forms aldehydes at the end of the molecule and ketones if it occurs in the middle

polar

found in sugars

What group is this from?

• what type?

carbonyl

aldehyde

What group is this from?

• what type?

carbonyl

ketone

What group?

polar or non?

where is it found?

what is it considered? why?

carboxyl

polar

fatty and amino acids and any acids involved with metabolism

an acidic group because H often disassociates from O in solution becoming a hydrogen ion

By definition any molecule with carboxyl group is a?

acid

what group is it?

how does it act? why?

what does it form?

Amino group

• acts as a base because it can pick up free H+

• forms one end of an amino acid

What group is it?

hydrophilic or hydrophobic? makes it polar or non? why?

important constituents of? where are they found?

Phosphate group

hydrophilic and polar because they can donate H+

important constituents of nucleotides that make up DNA, RNA, and ATP

What group is it?

• compound at end? middle?

• polar or non?

• where is it found?

methyl

• R-CH3 (end), R-CH2-R (middle)

• non polar, making them hydrophobic

• found in lipids and hydrocarbons

By definition biological molecules contain? What are they needed for?

• what do all of them contain? What may some of them contain additionally?

carbon, essential for life

• all contain CHO, some may additionally contain N or P

Fundamental Units: Biomolecules are considered to be?

• large molecules are?

• small molecules are?

large molecules made up of smaller subunits

• polymers

• monomers

How are polymers made?

adding monomers through dehydration synthesis (removing H and OH)

How are polymers broken down?

through hydrolysis, by adding H and OH to the ends that were separated

Order of presence of biomolecules

1) proteins

2) lipids

3) nucleic acids

4) carbohydrates

Carbohydrates

• What are its monosaccharides

• What are its disaccharides (how are they made)

• What are the polysaccharides, these are?

• what is its main function

ribose, glucose, fructose, and galactose, fundamental unit

sucrose (glucose+fructose), maltose (glucose+glucose), and lactose (glucose+galactose)

starch, glycogen, cellulose, are complex carbohydrates

long term energy storage, structural

Polysaccharides: structure, bond, and organism

• starch

• glycogen

• cellulose

coiled molecule due to polar bonds, energy storage in plants

coiled molecule with many side chains due to polar bonds, energy storage in animals

long and straight chains due to hydrogen bonds, structural in plants cell walls

Simple sugars like fructose have a high glycemic index, why?

Why are complex carbohydrates better?

glucose is absorbed faster causing a quick peak and drop in blood sugar levels

complex carbs have a lower glycemic index because they take longer to digest and absorb glucose, so blood sugar rises slowly, does not peak as high, and maintains a steady rate for longer

Can we break down cellulose

no, but our beneficial gut bacteria in large intestine can

Carbohydrates: summary

• general formula

• fundamental unit

• polar or non?

• functions

• caloric equivalences

CnH2nOn (C and O in equal amounts)

FU: monosaccharides

polar

energy source and storage (glucose, glycogen, and starch)

structure: cellulose and polysaccharides in EC matrix

Signaling: glycoproteins and lipids

4 cal/g

Lipids are the most?

• made out of …? mainly?

• nonpolar or polar?

structurally diverse

made out of CHO but mainly CH

non polar and hydrophobic

Lipids

• what are its subclasses?

  • which one is the fundamental unit

fatty acids

triglycerides

phospholipids

steroids

is a steroid a monomer or polymer?

neither

Lipids) Fatty Acids

• what groups do they consist of?

• what makes them high energy?

• what are its two types? how? how are they at room temp

methyl group and carboxyl

CH bonds and CC Bonds

saturated, have no double bonds, solid

unsaturated, when they have double bonds (mono or poly, liquid

Fatty acids:

cis isomer

trans isomer, solid or liquid? good or bad?

cis: H is on the same side causing the kink in molecule

trans: H is on opposite sides causing it to be straight (solid), bad becausel it raises LDL

Triglycerides

• how much do they account for lipids?

• structure

• caloric equivalence

90%

glycerol back bone and three fatty acid tails

energy storage 9 cal/g

Phospholipids

• what property does it have?

• main component of?

• what is its structure?

amphipathic

cell membrane, makes up semipermeable phospholipid bilayer

phosphate head (philic), glycerol back bone (philic), and two fatty acids (phobic),

Cholesterol

• is the most common?

• what are its main functions?

• where is it made? broken down?

steroid

fluidity of the membrane, prevents changes due to temperature

base of many steroid hormones

made in the liver from saturated fatty acids and broken down in liver as well

Cholesterol is hydrophobic, how is it transported through blood?

• what is the difference? which one is good? which is bad, and why?

through carrier proteins HDL and LDL (high/low density lipoproteins)

• HDL is more soluble and is able to go straight to the liver

• LDL has less proteins and more cholesterol causing it to be sticky and potentially stick to arteries in plaques causing atherosclerosis, narrowing our BV and increasing BP, which can potentially cause parts of heart/ brain to not receive oxygen and lead to myocardial infraction or stroke

Is cholesterol diverse structurally?

• what is this an example of?

no but are functionally

shows how small changes in molecule can have big outcomes

Lipids summary

• general formula

• fundamental unit

• polar or non?

• functions

• caloric equivalences

CHO

fatty acids

nonpolar

energy storage: triglycerides

cell membranes: phospholipids and cholesterol

signaling: steroid hormones

9 Cal/g

Proteins

• are the most?

• are always made out of?

• polar or non?

• fundamental unit

CHON

most functionally diverse

polar backbone (also depends of R group)

amino acid

what are the groups of amino acids?

central carbon

amino (NH2)

carboxyl (COOH)

Hydrogen

Side Chain (variable)

How do amino acids form proteins?

linked by peptide bonds to form polypeptide/protein

What are the N terminus an C terminus

N-terminus (amino-terminus) and C-terminus (carboxyl-terminus) are the two distinct ends of a protein or polypeptide chain

Does order of amino acids matter?

yes it can form a completely different protein and in times where R groups are completely different (ex: charged to non polar) it can cause severe mutations

Primary structure

order of amino acids

Secondary structure

Alpha Helix (small R) and beta pleated sheets (big R)

Tertiary structure

overall 3D folding (chaperone protein) held by R groups interaction

Quaternary Structure

complete protein with four polypeptide sub units

Conjugated proteins

proteins combined with carbohydrates and/or lipids

function of proteins

1) Facilitate chemical reactions (enzymes)
2) Transport
3) Movement of muscles
4) Structure
5) Cell signaling
6) Nutrition
7) Defense
8) Components of cell membrane
9) Immune response
10) Hormones (insulin)

Protein summary

• chemical formula

• fundamental unit

• polar or non

• functions

• caloric equivalence

CHON, sometimes S

amino acids

mainly polar sometimes non

most cellular/organismal activity relies on proteins

4 Cal/g

Nucleic Acids

• are made out of? always?

• are the most?

nucleotides

CHONP

structurally complex

Nucleotides consist of?

1) five carbon sugar: deoxyribose or ribose

2) phosphate 1+

3) nitrogenous base: ACTG or AUCG

How are nucleic acids held together?

• what order?

• In the double helix nitrogenous bases are bonded through?

through sugar phosphate bonds

• to carbon 5 and 3

• hydrogen bonds

Function of nucleic acids

store genetic information and CARRY energy

ATP

• where is the energy stored

• why is it released little at a time?

• is this reused?

the last phosphate group, little bursts of energy released a little at a time

yes from cellular respiration chemical energy is harvested from fuel molecules creating ATP to be used for cellular work

Nucleic Acids Summary

• chemical formula

• fundamental unit

• polar or non

• function

• caloric equivalence

CHONP

nucleotides

polar

information storage (DNA, RNA)

energy carriers (ATP, NADH, FADH2)

0 cal/g