Chapter 6 - Memory and Cognition

cognition

mental processes that we use to acquire, retain, and use knowledge

memory

process of forming, storing, and recalling information

memory encoding

the first step in creating a memory

memory storage

process that allows us to save information for later use

memory retrieval

process of recalling information

forgetting

failure to recall information stored in memory

memory errors

mistakes and distortions in the recalling of stored information

elaboration

processing information with intention, deep thinking, examples, and connecting it to things in your own life

plasticity

flexibility the brain has to change both its structure and function in response to the environment

memory disorders

conditions that indicate complex problems with memory

language

a system of communication that uses rules to combine arbitrary symbols to create an infinite number of meaningful statements

communication

methods of conveying information

categorization

ability to organize or group similar information together

problem solving

ability to reach a goal that is not readily evident - includes approaches, tools, and mistakes we make in the process

decision making

process of reaching a decision or choosing between two or more alternatives

biases

preconceived notions that can influence making decisions

thinking

the mental manipulation of information to organize information, solve problems, reason about things, make decisions, and communicate

information processing model

model that views memory as a computer-like system that encodes, stores, and retrieves information

sensory memory

stage of memory where a sensory stimulus is captured very briefly, after which it disappears or passes on to short-term memory

attention

focusing on specific stimuli or things in our environment

short-term memory

temporarily holds information for 20-30 seconds

working memory

temporary holding place that allows us to manipulate information

chunking

the ability to group several individual pieces of information into one larger meaningful unit

maintenance rehearsal

process of repeating information, allows us to retain information as long as we continue to think about it

long-term memory

stores an unlimited amount of information for an indefinite period of time

explicit memory

memory we can consciously recall and declare (put into words)

semantic memory

type of explicit memory, includes all of the facts and general knowledge you have accumulated over time

episodic memory

type of explicit memory, includes all personal experiences from your history

implicit memory

memory that is recalled without conscious effort

procedural memory

type of implicit memory, includes knowledge of how to do things as well as conditioned responses, not easily put into words

free recall

ability to retrieve information from memory without any cues or hints

retrieval cue

a hint or prompt to stimulate memory

cued recall

using retrieval cue or hint to stimulate memory

recognition

choosing from a set of options

forgetting curve

pattern of how information is lost over time

encoding failure

information not encoded is therefore not retrievable

decay theory

idea that, over time, memories begin to fade due to natural metabolic processes in the brain

interference theory

idea that information is not forgotten, but rather, is difficult or impossible to access because it competes or interferes with existing memories

retroactive interference

occurs when creation of a new memory interferes with your ability to recall an old memory

proactive interference

occurs when you have difficulty committing new information to memory because it competes with information you already have stored

suppression

type of motivated forgetting that involves deliberately trying to push information out of your mind

false memory

an occurrence that never happened is recalled as an actual occurrence

flashbulb memories

memories for the circumstances surrounding where you were and when you first heard about an emotionally-charged event

serial position effect

remembering information at the beginning of a list and at the end of a list, while information in the middle tends to be more prone to memory loss

encoding specificity principle

the way information is encoded affects later recall

shallow processing

learning material in a very superficial, surface-level fashion

deep processing

form of elaboration that requires you to penetrate the surface and think about the meaning of information

self-reference effect

applying the concept to yourself results in improved retention

spaced practice

studying something several times over several days

massed practice

cramming studying into one long session

prospective memory

memory for things in the future, i.e., things you have to do

localized

idea that memories are stored in a particular site in the brain

distributed

idea that memories are spread throughout different regions of the brain

prefrontal cortex

part of frontal lobes; area involved in working (or short-term) memory

hippocampus

limbic system structure concerned with basic drives, emotions, and memory; not a permanent site for memory storage; its neurons have a high level of plasticity

basal ganglia

brain structure invovled in the procedural aspects of emotional memories

cerebellum

hindbrain structure important in motor coordination and procedural memories

amygdala

brain structure in limbic system, processes fear and emotional memories

neural circuit

a series of neurons

long-term potentiation

as the same neural circuit is activated again and again, the speed of the firing, the strength of the connection between neurons, and the amount of neurotransmitters that are released all increase

retrograde amnesia

loss of information learned before the time of injury because memory consolidation did not occur

anterograde amnesia

inability to create new memories

dementia

group of disorders that affect the brain and impair an individual's ability to carry out daily tasks

Alzheimer's disease

most common form of dementia, progressive disease affecting all brain functions by gradually destroying neurons

phoneme

smallest unit of sound that can distinguish one word from another

semantics

feature of language that has to do with meaning

syntax

feature of language that describes the rules for combining words in a language

generativity

feature of language that allows us to create new things that have never before been said

displacement

feature of language that allows us to communicate about things that are separated from us in time and space

concepts

abstract mental representations for objects or ideas

definitional approach

approach to categorization that describes how we compare an object to a mental list of associated items before placing them into that category

prototype

idealized instance of a category

exemplar

actual example of a category

problems

being in an initial state and having a desired goal state with obstacles to overcome or no clear path as to how to obtain the goal

algorithms

step-by-step strategies that, if followed correctly, will guarantee a solution to the problem

subgoals

breaking up a task into smaller parts

restructuring

looking at a problem from a different angle

mental set

a way of solving a problem based on a method that has worked in the past

functional fixedness

failing to see new uses for an object

insight

occurs when you come to a solution all of a sudden without realizing that you were about to get there

decisions

choosing between two or more alternatives

single feature model

approach to decision making that involves choosing between alternatives and basing the decision on only one important aspect

additive model

approach to decision making that rates important features numerically and makes decision based on highest score

expected utility theory

suggest that people should choose rationally and make a decision that results in the best possible outcome

heuristics

problem-solving strategies that are used to help make decisions

representativeness heuristic

decision making strategy that involves comparing a situation to similar to examples from your past experience

availability heuristic

decision making strategy that is based on how many examples you can easily bring to mind

confirmation bias

pitfall in decision making - we look for evidence that reinforces or confirms a decision or rule while failing to look for exceptions to the rule

framing effect

a cognitive bias, tendency to make decisions based on how the options are presented