AP Lang Rhetorical Strategies and Vocab!

Prepare for the AP test!

Alliteration

Repetition of the same sound beginning several words or syllables in sequence. [L]et us go forth to lead the land we love…

Allusion

Brief reference to a person, event, or place (real or fictitious) or to a work of art. Let both sides unite to heed in all corners of the earth the command of Isaiah…

Anaphora

Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses, or lines. …not as a call to bear arms, though arms we need—not as a call to battle, although embattled we are…

Antithesis

Opposition, or contrast, of ideas or words in a parallel construction. [W]e shall…support any friend, oppose any foe…

Archaic Diction

Old-fashioned or outdated choice of words. beliefs for which our forebears fought

Asyndeton

Omission of conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, or words.

Cumulative Sentence

Sentence that completes the main idea at the beginning of the sentence then builds and adds on. But neither can two great and powerful groups of nations take comfort from our present course—both sides overburdened by the cost of modern weapons, both rightly alarmed by the steady spread of the deadly atom, yet both racing to alter that uncertain balance of terror that stays the hand of mankind’s final war.

Hortative Sentence

Sentence that exhorts, urges, entreats, implores, or calls to action. Let both sides explore what problems unite us instead of belaboring those problems which divide us.

Imperative Sentence

Sentence used to command or enjoin. My fellow citizens of the world: ask not what America will do for you, but what together we can do for the freedom of man.

Inversion

Inverted order of words in a sentence (variation of the subject-verb-object order). United there is little we cannot do in a host of cooperative ventures. Divided there is little we can do…

Juxtaposition

Placement of two things closely together to emphasize similarities or differences. [W]e are the heirs of that first revolution. Let the word go forth…that the torch has been passed to a new generation of Americans—born in this century,,,

Metaphor

Figure of speech that compares two things without using “like” or “as.” And if a beachhead of cooperation may push back the jungle of suspicion…

Oxymoron

Paradoxical juxtaposition of words that seem to contradict one another. But this peaceful revolution…

Parallelism

Similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases, or clauses. Let both sides explore…let both sides, for the first time, formulate serious and precise proposals…Let both sides seek to invoke…Let both sides unite to heed…

Audience

The listener, viewer, or reader of a text. Most texts are likely to have multiple audiences. Gehrig’s audience was his teammates and fans in the stadium that day, but it was also the teams he played against, the fans listening on the radio, and posterity—us.

Aristotelian / Rhetorical Triangle

A diagram that illustrated the interrelationship among the speaker, audience, and subject in determining a text.

Concession

An acknowledgement that an opposing argument may be true or reasonable. In a strong argument, a concession is usually accompanied by a refutation challenging the validity of the opposing argument. Lou Gehrig concedes what some of his listeners may thing—that his bad break is a cause for discouragement or dispair.

Connotation

Meanings or associations that readers have with a word beyond its dictionary definition, or denotation. Connotations are usually positive or negative, and they can greatly affect the author’s tone.

Context

The circumstances, atmosphere, attitudes, and events surrounding a text.

Counterargument

An opposing argument to the one a writer is putting forward. Rather than ignoring a counterargument, a strong writer will usually address it through the process of concession and refutation.

Ethos

Greek for “character" and appeal to credibility. Speakers appeal to ethos to demonstrate that they are trustworthy to speak on a given topic. Ethos is established by both who you are and what you say.

Logos

Greek for “embodied thought” and appeal to logic. Speakers appeal to logos, or reason, by offering clear, rational ideas and using specific details, examples, facts, statistics, or expert testimony to back them up.

Occasion

The time and place a speech is given or a piece is written.

Pathos

Greek for “suffering” or “experience” and appeal to emotion. Speakers appeal to pathos to emotionally motivate their audience. More specific appeals to pathos might play on the audience’s values, desires, and hopes, on the one hand, or fears and prejudices, on the other.

Persona

Greek for “mask.” The face or character that a speaker shows to his or her audience.

Polemic

Greek for “hostile.” An aggressive argument that tries to establish the superiority of one opinion over all the others. Polemics generally do not concede that opposing arguments have any merit.

Propaganda

The spread of ideas and information to further a cause. In its negative sense, propaganda is the use of rumors, lies, disinformation, and scare tactics in order to damage or promote a cause.

Purpose

The goal the speaker wants to achieve.

Refutation

A denial of the validity of an opposing argument. In order to sound reasonable, refutations often follow a concession that acknowledges that an opposing argument may be true or reasonable.

Rhetoric

As Aristotle defined the term “the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion.” In other words, it is the art of finding ways to persuade an audience.

SOAPS

A mnemonic device that stands for Subject, Occasion, Audience, Purpose, and Speaker.

Cogent

(of an argument or case) clear, logical, and convincing.

Panegyric

a public speech or published text in praise of someone or something.

Sardonic

grimly mocking or cynical.

Analogy

a comparison between two things, typically for the purpose of explanation or clarification.

Allegory

The device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. Ex. “Animal Farm” by George Orwell

Ambiguity

The multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage.

Anecdote

A short narrative detailing particulars of an interesting episode or event, most commonly an incident in the life of a person.

Antecedent

The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun.

Aphorism

A terse statement of know authorship which expresses a general truth or moral principle, such as, “if it ain't broke, don't fix it.”

Apostrophe

A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. The effect is to give vent to or display intense emotion, which can no longer be held back. Ex. O value of wisdom that fadeth not away with time, virtue ever flourishing that cleanseth its possessor from al venom!

Atmosphere

The emotional mood created by the entirety of a literary work, established partly by the setting and partly by the author’s choice of objects that are described. Even such elements as description of the weather can contribute to the atmosphere. Frequently, the atmosphere foreshadows events. Perhaps it can create a mood.

Chiasmus

A figure of speech in which two successive phrases or clauses are parallel in syntax, but reverse the order of the analogous words. Ex. The land was ours before we were the land’s.

Clause

A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or main, clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause. The point that you want to consider is the question of what or why the author subordinates one element to the other.

Colloquialism

The use of slang or informalities in writing or speech. Not generally acceptable for formal writing, colloquialisms give a work a conversational, familiar tone. Colloquial expressions in writing include local or regional dialects.

Exigence

The urgent problem, issue, or situation that compels a writer or speaker to create a text or speech

Coherance

A principle demanding that the parts of any composition be arranged so that the meaning of the whole may be immediately clear and intelligible. Words, phrases, clauses within the sentence; and sentences, paragraphs, and chapters in larger pieces of writing are the unit that by their progressives and logical arrangement, make for coherence.

Conceit

A fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects. A conceit displays intellectual cleverness as a result of the unusual comparison being made.

Denotation

The strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color.

Diacope

Repetition of a word or phrase after an intervening word or phrase: word/phrase X…, word/phrase X. Ex. We will do it, I tell you; we will do it. Ex. We give thanks to Thee, O God, we give thanks (Psalm 75:1).

Diction

Related to style, diction refers to the writer’s word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness.

Didactic

From the Greek, didactic literally means teaching. Didactic works have the primary aim of teaching or instructing, especially the teaching of moral or ethical principles.

Enumeratio

Figure of amplification in which a subject is divided into constituent parts or details, and may include a listing of causes, effects, problems, solutions, conditions, and consequences. Ex. I love her eyes, her hair, her nose, her cheeks, her lips.

Expletive

Figure of emphasis in which a single word or short phrase, usually interrupting normal speech, is used to lend emphasis to the words on either side of the expletive

Euphemism

From the Greek for good speech, euphemisms are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept. For example, “passed away” rather than “died”

Exposition

In essays, one of the four chief types of composition with the purpose of explaining something

Extended metaphor

A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout the work.

Figurative Language

Writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually meant to be imaginative and wild

Figure of speech

A device used to produce figurative language. Ex. hyperbole, irony, etc

Generic conventions

This term describes traditions for each genre. These help to define each genre; for example, an essay vs journalism vs political writing

Genre

The major category into which a literary work fits. On the AP exam, the majority of the passages will likely be from the following genres: autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays, and journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing.

Homily

This term literally means “sermon” but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.

Hyperbole

Deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. Often, it produces irony.

Ex. The only thing we have to fear is fear itself.

Hypophora

Figure of reasoning in which one or more questions is/are asked and then answered, often at length

Imagery

The five senses / sensory details

Inference

To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented. On the AP test, if it asks for this, the safest answer is the more direct, reasonable inference that is not directly stated.

Invective

an emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language

Irony

The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant.

Verbal Irony

The words literally state the opposite of the author’s true meaning

Situational irony

Events turn out the opposite of what was expected

Dramatic irony

Facts or events are unknown to a character in a piece of fiction, but known to the audience or other characters in the work

Juxtaposition

When two words, phrases, images, ideas are places close together or side by side for comparison or contrast

Litotes

A figure of thought in which a point is affirmed by negating its opposite. Ex. He’s no fool (which implies that he is wise).

Loose sentence

A type of sentence in which the main idea comes first, followed by independent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. Create a loose style

Metonymy

A figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for another closely associated with it. For example: “the white house declared” rather than “the president declared”

Subordination

(although, because, since, when, if) dependent clause, independent clause.

Coordination

Independent clause, (FANBOYS) independent clause.

Mood

The general vibe of a work (or the emotional atmosphere created by the author).

Narrative

The telling of a story or an account of an event or series of events.

Onomatopoeia

A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words. Examples: buzz, hiss, or murmur.

Oxymoron

A figure of speech that combines contradictory terms, such as "bittersweet" or "deafening silence."

Paradox

A statement that appears self-contradictory but may reveal an underlying truth, such as "less is more".

Parallelism

The use of similar grammatical structures to present related ideas in a balanced manner, enhancing rhythm and clarity in writing. Examples: "I came, I saw, I conquered" or "To err is human; to forgive, divine."

Parody

A humorous or exaggerated imitation of a particular work, style, or genre, often used to comment on or critique the original.

Pedantic

A scholarly, academic, bookish tone.

Personification

Attributing human qualities or characteristics to non-human entities or abstractions, often used to create vivid imagery.

Polysyndeton

The deliberate use of multiple conjunctions in succession to emphasize a point, create rhythm, or slow the reader's pace.

Point of view

The vantage point from which a story is told, including first-person, second-person, and third-person perspectives.

Predicate adjective

A type of adjective that follows a linking verb and describes the subject of the sentence.

Predicate nominative

A noun or pronoun that follows a linking verb and renames or identifies the subject of the sentence.

Prose

Written language in its ordinary form, without the structured meter of poetry.

Repetition

A rhetorical strategy that involves the deliberate use of the same word or phrase multiple times to emphasize a point or create rhythm in writing or speech.

Rhetorical Modes

Various methods of writing that purposefully shape content, including narration, description, exposition, and argumentation. The four most common rhetorical modes and their purposes are as follows: narration for storytelling, description for sensory details, exposition for explanation, and argumentation for persuasion.

Rhetorical question

A question asked for effect, not requiring an answer, often to provoke thought or emphasize a point.

Sarcasm

The use of irony to mock or convey contempt, often by stating the opposite of what is meant.

Satire

A genre that uses humor, irony, or exaggeration to criticize or mock social conventions, politics, or individuals, often to promote change.

Semantics

The study of meaning in language, including how words and phrases convey meaning and how they can be interpreted in different contexts.

Style

The way an author expresses their thoughts through word choice, sentence structure, and literary techniques, creating a distinctive voice.

Subject complement

A word or phrase that follows a linking verb and describes or renames the subject, adding information about it.

Syllogism

A form of logical reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn from two given or assumed propositions (premises). It often follows an "if-then" format and is used to demonstrate validity in arguments.