Psychology 111 Midterm Two

learning

relatively permanent change in behavior by experience or practice

working memory

holds information temporarily, purpose of manipulation

chunking

grouping information together using knowledge

habituation

response to a stimulus decreases with exposure

sensitization

response to stimuli increases with exposure

encoding

pact of putting information into memory

metacognition

knowledge and skills people have in monitoring and controlling own learning and memory

distributed practive

space out learning over time

massed practice

cramming, big chunks of learning over once

interleaving

avoid repetition of the same type of problem by switching between tasks

implicit learning

acquire information without intent, can’t easily express; behavior changes without having intended to learn something

implicit memory

long-term memory that does not require conscious encoding

habituation

becomes less responsive

sensitization

become more responsive

nonassociating learning

single repeated exposure leads to behavior change

perceptual learning

aspects of our perception change as a function of exposure

incidental learning

learning that happens without intention to learn

intentional learning

learning that happens when motivated by intention

transfer appropriate processing

memory is better when the test taps same cognitive activity as original encoding; similar environment to test or use of memory

pavlovian (classical) conditioning

initially neutral stimulus is paired with unconditioned stimulus resulting in that conditioned stimulus beginning to elicit a conditioned response

operant (instrumental) conditioning

animals learn relationship between behavior and consequence, voluntary behavior produces a result

unconditioned stimulus

stimulus elicits response before conditioning occurs, no training

unconditioned response

innate response elicited by stimulus before or in absence of conditioning

neutral stimulus

\

conditioned stimulus

initially neutral stimulus (bell, light, tone, etc) that elicits a conditional response after association with an unconditioned stimulus; has no importance until pairing

conditioned response (CR)

response elicited by conditioned stimulus after classical conditioning has taken place

extinction

decrease in strength of a learned behavior that occurs when conditioned stimulus is presented without unconditioned stimulus, or, behavior is no longer reinforced

spontaneous recovery

recovery of extinguished response that occurs with passage of time after extinction

operant

behavior is controlled by consequences

positive reinforcement

reinforced by a positive stimulus

negative reinforcement

reinforced by a negative stimulus

primary reinforcers

basic needs; hunger, thirst, touch, pleasure

secondary reinforcers

something paired with past experience of primary reinforcers; money, tokens, praise, etc

latent/observational learning

learn behavior by watching, even if not performed by self

coercive cycle

negative reinforcement trap

habit

automatic behavior in presence of stimulus, no longer influence by the conscious

law of effect

instrumental or operant responses are influenced by their effects, responses followed by pleasant will be strengthened, discomfort will be weakened

john watson, b.f. skinner

behaviorism

albert bandura

social learning theory

social learning theory

theory that people can learn new responses and behaviors by observing the behavior of others through attention, retention, initiation and motivation

recall

retrieval pulled with few external cues

recognition

match information to a stored image or fact; knowing someone when you see them; getting award for hard work

engrams/memory traces

change in nervous system representing an effect

misinformation effect

erroneous information occurring after event is remembered as having been part of original event

hindsight bias

tendency to think after the fact that you would’ve predicted correct outcome

encoding specificity principle

retrieval cue will be effective to the extent that information encoded from cue overlaps or matches information in memory trace

echoic memory

auditory memory, 2-4 seconds

iconic memory

visual learning, part of a second

eidetic memory

memory lasts after only a few exposures

working memory

ability to hold and work with information for a brief time

episodic memory

memory for events in a particular time and place

semantic memory

“permanent” store of knowledge people have

long-term memory

information kept permanently

short-term memory

memory held for a brief time while being used

procedural memory

implicit learning aiding in unconscious task performance

declarative memory

ability to store and retrieve personal and general info

flashbulb memory

vivid memory of news of some momentous and emotional event

serial position effect

tendency to remember information from beginning/end, not middle

primacy effect

remembering information presented first

recency effect

remembering information presented last

three stages of memory

encoding, storage, retrieval

encoding

initial learning of information

storage

maintaining information over time

retrieval

ability to access information when you need it

retrograde amnesia

loss of memory from point of injury forward

anterograde amnesia

loss of memory from point of injury forward

proactive interference

past memories interfere with the encoding of new ones

retroactive interference

events that occur after particular event of interest cause forgetting of original event

photo spreads

selection of small face photographs given to a witness for the purpose of identifying a perpetrator

foils

member of a lineup other than the subject

false memories

memory for an event that never actually occurred, implanted by experimental manipulation or other means

schema

memory template created through repeated exposure to a particular class of objects or events

misinformation effect

memory error caused by exposure to incorrect information between original event and a later memory testq

eyewitness fallacies

poor vision or viewing conditions, significant delay between witnessing and identifying, identifying perpetrator from a different race

human memory errors

forget events and people, mix up details, remember complex events that never occurred

consciousness

awareness of deliberate perception of stimulus

circadian rhythms

physiological sleep-wake cycle influenced by sunlight exposure, daily schedule and activity; includes body temperature, blood pressure and blood sugar changes

mindfulness

heightened focus and evaluation on thoughts

hypnotherapy

use of relaxation and suggestion to help engineer desirable change

hallucinogens

substances that alter perception; false hallucinations and time distortion

stimulants

speed of body’s physiological and mental processes

depressants

slows down body’s physiological and mental processes

stages of sleep

Stage One: N1, “falling asleep”; marked by theta waves

Stage Two: N2, light sleep, 55% of all sleep, high intensity brain waves and processing of memories

Stage Three: N3, 20-25% of all sleep, greater muscle relaxation, delta waves

Stage Four: REM (rapid eye movement), 20% of sleep, less intense brain waves, associated with dreams

priming

activation of certain thoughts or feelings that make them easier to think of and act upon

implicit associations test

reaction time test measuring person’s automatic associations with concepts

theory of consciousness

freud proposed some memories and basic motivations are not always accessible to our conscious minds

Chen et al Study (2012)

sleep deprivation is becoming more prevalent, declining sleep is linked to increased obesity; risk of obesity reduces by 9% for each hour increase in sleep; children with shorter sleep had 58% higher risk for obesity

Dr Jone’s studies

20-30 phone call in which participants recalled previous 24 hours; later bedtimes predicted shorter sleep duration, timing/type of event activities predicted adolescent

sleep intervention

decreased evening screen time and snacking; bedtime monitoring

ideal sleep duration

just over nine hours; early bedtime and wakeup

manifest content

dream is actual meaning, taken literally

freud’s view of daydreaming

wish fulfillment based on past conflicts or events, seen as symbols

activation synthesis hypothesis

activation and synthesis of sensation in pons and areas of the brain; different kind of thinking, decreased frontal lobe activity causes less realistic thinking

activation information mode (AIM) model

dreams organize information from the day

insomnia

inability to fall asleep, stay asleep or get quality sleep

better sleep guidelines

only sleep in bed, don’t try or look at clock, maintain consistent schedule, no pills or alcohol, exercise regularly

sleep apena

stop breathing for 10+ seconds, associated with poor sleep quality, obesity, heart problems and depression, affects 5-25% of adults

narcolepsy

‘sleep seizure’, suddenly slips into REM; excessive daytime sleepiness, cataplexy (sudden loss of muscle tone)

lucid dream

dream in which one is aware one is dreaming

vivid dream

clear, can be remembered in great detail