4.1 Attribution Theory and Person Perception

• Attribution theory explores how we explain behavior, both our own and others'. It covers internal and external attributions, explanatory styles, and common biases that affect our judgments. Understanding these concepts helps us navigate social interactions and self-perception more effectively.

• Person perception processes, including the mere exposure effect and self-fulfilling prophecies, shape how we view and interact with others. Social comparison types further influence our self-evaluation and satisfaction with life circumstances. These concepts are crucial for understanding social psychology.

Attribution theory in behavior

Internal vs external attributions

• Attributions explain the behavior and mental processes of oneself and others

  • Dispositional attributions connect behavior to internal qualities like intelligence or personality

  • Situational attributions link behavior to external circumstances the person experiences

• Example: A student fails a test

  • Dispositional attribution: The student is not smart enough or didn't study hard enough

  • Situational attribution: The test was too difficult or the student was dealing with personal issues

Explanatory styles for events

• Explanatory style is a person's predictable pattern of attributions for good and bad events in their own life and others' lives

  • Optimistic explanatory style attributes good events to internal, stable, global causes and bad events to external, unstable, specific causes

  • Pessimistic explanatory style attributes good events to external, unstable, specific causes and bad events to internal, stable, global causes

• Examples of optimistic explanatory style:

  • "I got an A on the test because I'm smart and studied hard" (good event, internal/stable/global)

  • "I failed the test because it was really hard this time" (bad event, external/unstable/specific)

• Examples of pessimistic explanatory style:

  • "I got an A on the test because it was easy this time" (good event, external/unstable/specific)

  • "I failed the test because I'm not good at this subject" (bad event, internal/stable/global)

Biases in attributions

• Actor-observer bias: People tend to attribute their own behavior to situational factors, but attribute others' behavior to dispositional factors

  • Example: "I was late because there was a lot of traffic" (own behavior, situational) vs. "They were late because they're always disorganized" (others' behavior, dispositional)

• Fundamental attribution error: Overestimating the influence of dispositional factors and underestimating the influence of situational factors when explaining others' behavior

  • Example: Assuming a quiet person is shy (dispositional) without considering they may be tired or in a bad mood (situational)

• Self-serving bias: Tendency to attribute successes to internal factors and failures to external factors to maintain self-esteem

  • Example: "I got the job because I'm highly qualified" (success, internal) vs. "I didn't get the job because the interviewer was biased" (failure, external)

Locus of control applications

• Locus of control is the extent to which people believe they have control over events in their lives

  • Internal locus of control: Belief that one's own actions determine outcomes

  • External locus of control: Belief that outside forces (luck, fate, powerful others) determine outcomes

• Applications of locus of control:

  • People with an internal locus of control tend to have better mental health, higher achievement motivation, and cope better with stress

  • People with an external locus of control are more prone to learned helplessness and may be less motivated to change their circumstances

• Example: Two students fail a test

  • Student with internal locus of control: "I need to study harder next time to improve my grade"

  • Student with external locus of control: "The teacher made the test too hard, there's nothing I can do"

Person perception processes

Mere exposure effect

• Mere exposure effect: Phenomenon where people tend to like a stimulus more simply because they've been exposed to it repeatedly over time

• Examples of mere exposure effect:

  • Liking a song more after hearing it multiple times on the radio.

  • Developing a preference for a certain brand after seeing its advertisements frequently.

• Mere exposure effect can influence person perception by increasing liking for people seen more often, even without direct interaction.

Self-fulfilling prophecies

• Self-fulfilling prophecy: When people's beliefs or perceptions about themselves or others lead them to behave in ways that elicit confirming behaviors from others

• Examples of self-fulfilling prophecies:

  • A teacher believes a student is not smart, gives them less attention and support, leading to lower performance that confirms the initial belief

  • A person believes they are socially awkward, acts nervous and withdrawn in social situations, causing others to interact less with them and reinforcing their self-perception

• Self-fulfilling prophecies can perpetuate both positive and negative perceptions in interpersonal relationships

Social comparison types

• Social comparison: Evaluating oneself based on comparisons to others in society or social circles

  • Upward social comparison: Comparing oneself to someone seen as better off, which can inspire self-improvement but may also threaten self-esteem

  • Downward social comparison: Comparing oneself to someone seen as worse off, which can boost self-esteem but may hinder motivation to improve

• Relative deprivation: Perception of being deprived of something one feels entitled to, often based on social comparisons

  • Example: Feeling dissatisfied with one's income after learning that a coworker in a similar position earns more

• Social comparisons and relative deprivation can significantly impact self-perception and satisfaction with one's circumstances

4.2 Attitude Formation and Attitude Change

• Stereotypes and implicit attitudes shape our perceptions of others, often leading to biased thinking and behavior. These mental shortcuts can reduce cognitive load but also reinforce prejudices and discrimination, influencing our decisions without conscious awareness.

• Belief perseverance and cognitive dissonance play crucial roles in how we maintain or change our attitudes. We tend to cling to beliefs despite contradictory evidence and experience discomfort when our actions and attitudes clash, driving us to resolve these inconsistencies.

Stereotypes and implicit attitudes

Stereotypes as cognitive shortcuts

• Stereotypes are oversimplified, generalized beliefs about a particular group of people

  • Can reduce cognitive load when making quick decisions or judgments

  • Often based on limited or biased perceptions and experiences

  • Frequently lead to prejudiced attitudes and discriminatory behaviors

• Stereotypes can be both the cause and result of biased thinking

  • May stem from limited exposure to a particular group

  • Can be reinforced by selective attention to information that confirms the stereotype (confirmation bias)

Implicit attitudes and biases

• Implicit attitudes are unconscious or unacknowledged evaluations individuals hold about others

  • May not align with explicitly stated beliefs or values

  • Can influence behavior and decision-making without conscious awareness

• Research has focused on how implicit attitudes often reflect negative evaluations of others

  • Just-world phenomenon assumes people get what they deserve and deserve what they get

  • Out-group homogeneity bias perceives members of other groups as more similar to each other than members of one's own group

  • In-group bias favors one's own group over others

  • Ethnocentrism judges other cultures based on the standards of one's own culture

Belief perseverance and dissonance

Belief perseverance and confirmation

• Belief perseverance is the tendency to cling to a belief even when presented with contradictory evidence

  • Can lead to confirmation bias, the tendency to seek out and interpret information in a way that confirms pre-existing beliefs

  • May involve dismissing or ignoring evidence that challenges the belief

  • Can be especially strong for deeply held or emotionally charged beliefs

• Belief perseverance can be difficult to overcome

  • Requires actively seeking out and considering alternative perspectives

  • May involve admitting to being wrong or changing long-held beliefs

Cognitive dissonance and resolution

• Cognitive dissonance is the mental discomfort experienced when actions and attitudes are inconsistent

  • Can occur when behavior contradicts beliefs or values

  • May arise when making a difficult decision or when confronted with information that challenges existing beliefs

• People are motivated to reduce cognitive dissonance to alleviate mental discomfort

  • May change actions to align with attitudes (e.g., stopping a behavior that conflicts with values)

  • May change attitudes to justify actions (e.g., convincing oneself that a questionable behavior was acceptable)

  • May seek out information that supports the chosen action or belief while ignoring contradictory information

 4.3: Psychology of Social Institutions

• Understanding Social Institutions

  • Definition and Role: Social institutions are organized structures and norms that govern behaviors and meet societal needs.

  • Major Social Institutions:

    • Family: Primary social institution for early socialization, nurturing, and support.

    • Education: Formal and informal learning systems that impart knowledge, skills, and social values.

    • Religion: Provides moral guidelines, sense of community, and a way to cope with existential questions.

    • Government: Structures and enforces laws, ensures security, and manages societal resources.

    • Economy: Organizes production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.

  • Influence on Behavior:

    • Social institutions shape norms, values, and behaviors of individuals within society.

    • They provide a framework for expected roles and behaviors, influencing everything from daily routines to career paths.

• Social Norms and Roles

  • Social Norms:

    • Established rules that dictate expected behaviors in specific social contexts.

    • Examples include dress codes, behavior in formal settings, and etiquette in public places.

  • Role Theory:

    • Suggests that social roles come with specific expectations that influence individual behavior.

    • Roles are influenced by factors such as age, gender, occupation, and social status.

  • Conformity and Obedience:

    • Conformity: Adjusting behaviors or beliefs to align with group norms.

    • Obedience: Complying with orders or directions from authority figures.

  • Socialization:

    • Process of learning and internalizing societal norms, values, and behaviors, largely influenced by institutions.

• Socialization and Group Dynamics

  • Primary vs. Secondary Socialization:

    • Primary Socialization: Early socialization in the family setting.

    • Secondary Socialization: Learning appropriate behavior in smaller groups and institutions beyond the family.

  • Influence of Peer Groups:

    • Peer groups are influential in shaping attitudes, behaviors, and identities, especially in adolescence.

  • Group Dynamics:

    • Groupthink: Desire for harmony leads to consensus-seeking behavior, often at the expense of critical thinking.

    • Group Polarization: Tendency for group discussion to strengthen the prevailing opinion.

    • Social Loafing: Reduced effort by individuals when working in a group compared to working alone.

4.4: Psychodynamic and Humanistic Theories of Personality

• Psychodynamic Theories of Personality (Freud)

  • Structure of Personality:

    • Id: Primitive desires and instincts, seeking immediate gratification.

    • Ego: Rational part that mediates between id and reality.

    • Superego: Internalized moral standards and values.

  • Defense Mechanisms:

    • Repression: Unconscious exclusion of distressing thoughts.

    • Denial: Refusal to accept reality.

    • Projection: Attributing one’s own undesirable feelings to others.

  • Psychosexual Stages of Development:

    • Stages include Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, and Genital.

    • Each stage focuses on different erogenous zones and impacts personality development.

• Neo-Freudian Contributions

  • Key Figures:

    • Carl Jung: Introduced the concepts of collective unconscious and archetypes.

    • Alfred Adler: Emphasized the importance of social interest and feelings of inferiority.

    • Karen Horney: Challenged Freud’s theories on female psychology and emphasized cultural influences.

  • Key Differences:

    • Less focus on sexual motivations and more emphasis on social and cultural influences.

• Humanistic Theories of Personality

  • Carl Rogers:

    • Emphasized self-concept, the importance of unconditional positive regard, and conditions of worth.

  • Abraham Maslow:

    • Developed the hierarchy of needs, culminating in self-actualization as the highest human potential.

  • Humanism:

    • Stresses free will, self-efficacy, and the inherent goodness of people.

4.5: Social-Cognitive and Trait Theories of Personality

• Social-Cognitive Theory

  • Reciprocal Determinism:

    • Concept by Albert Bandura that suggests an interaction between individual, behavior, and environment.

  • Observational Learning:

    • Learning by observing others; highlights the role of modeling.

  • Self-Efficacy:

    • Belief in one’s ability to succeed in specific situations.

  • Locus of Control:

    • Internal Locus: Belief that one controls their own fate.

    • External Locus: Belief that outside forces control outcomes.

• Trait Theories of Personality

  • Trait Theory Overview:

    • Focus on identifying and measuring stable personality characteristics.

  • Big Five Model:

    • Openness: Creativity and willingness to try new things.

    • Conscientiousness: Organization and dependability.

    • Extraversion: Sociability and enthusiasm.

    • Agreeableness: Compassion and cooperativeness.

    • Neuroticism: Emotional instability and negative emotions.

  • Personality Inventories:

    • Tools like the NEO-PI-R and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) assess personality traits.

4.6: Motivation

• Theories of Motivation

  • Drive-Reduction Theory:

    • Motivation arises from biological needs that create internal states of tension (drives).

  • Incentive Theory:

    • Behavior is directed by external rewards and punishments.

  • Arousal Theory:

    • People are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal for peak performance.

• Hierarchy of Needs

  • Maslow’s Hierarchy:

    • Needs range from basic physiological needs to self-actualization.

  • Critiques and Extensions:

    • Some argue Maslow’s model lacks empirical support; newer models incorporate evolutionary perspectives.

• Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

  • Intrinsic Motivation:

    • Driven by internal satisfaction and personal interest.

  • Extrinsic Motivation:

    • Driven by external rewards or avoidance of punishment.

  • Effects on Behavior:

    • Intrinsic motivation often leads to higher satisfaction and better long-term performance.

4.7: Emotion

• Components of Emotion

  • Physiological Arousal:

    • Body responses like heart rate, sweating, and adrenaline.

  • Expressive Behaviors:

    • Visible actions such as facial expressions and gestures.

  • Conscious Experience:

    • Subjective feelings and thoughts associated with an emotion.

  • Mood vs. Emotion:

    • Moods are longer-lasting emotional states, while emotions are more intense but shorter-lived.

• Theories of Emotion

  • Emotion as a Complex Process

    • Emotion (affect) is distinct from reasoning or knowledge.

    • Reflects internal and external factors influencing individuals.

    • Early theories explored physiological vs. cognitive aspects of emotion.

  • Key Theoretical Approaches

    • Sequential vs. Simultaneous Processing:

      • Some theories propose physiological and cognitive experiences occur in succession.

      • Others suggest they occur simultaneously.

    • Cognitive Label Necessity:

      • Certain theories argue cognitive appraisal is essential to experience emotion.

    • Facial-Feedback Hypothesis:

      • Facial expressions influence emotional experience.

      • Aligns with theories proposing physiological experience precedes cognition.

      • Research offers mixed support for this hypothesis.

    • Broaden-and-Build Theory:

      • Positive and negative emotions impact awareness and thought processes differently:

        • Positive emotions broaden awareness and encourage new thoughts and actions.

        • Negative emotions narrow awareness and focus attention on immediate threats or challenges.

• Positive vs. Negative Emotions

  • Positive Emotions (e.g., joy, love, excitement):

    • Benefits:

      • Enhance mental and physical well-being.

      • Boost creativity and problem-solving.

      • Strengthen social connections and relationships.

    • Adaptive Functions:

      • Motivate approach behaviors and exploration.

  • Negative Emotions (e.g., anger, sadness, fear):

    • Detriments:

      • Increase stress and anxiety.

      • Impair decision-making and cognitive function.

      • Strain interpersonal relationships.

    • Adaptive Functions:

      • Prompt avoidance behaviors.

      • Signal potential threats or challenges.

• Emotion Regulation

  • Strategies:

    • Cognitive reappraisal, suppression, mindfulness, and adaptive coping.

  • Neurobiology of Emotion:

    • The limbic system, especially the amygdala, plays a key role in processing emotions.

• Cultural Differences in Emotion

  • Universality vs. Cultural Variations:

    • Basic emotions may be universal, but expression varies by culture.

  • Display Rules:

    • Socially learned norms or rules for expressing emotions in specific situations.