Social Psychology and Personality (AP)

Attribution theory

Attribution theory

explores how we explain behavior, both our own and others'.

Dispositional attributions

connect behavior to internal qualities like intelligence or personality

Situational attributions

link behavior to external circumstances the person experiences

Explanatory style

is a person's predictable pattern of attributions for good and bad events in their own life and others' lives

Optimistic explanatory style

attributes good events to internal, stable, global causes and bad events to external, unstable, specific causes

Pessimistic explanatory style

attributes good events to external, unstable, specific causes and bad events to internal, stable, global causes

Actor-observer bias

People tend to attribute their own behavior to situational factors, but attribute others' behavior to dispositional factors

Fundamental attribution error

Overestimating the influence of dispositional factors and underestimating the influence of situational factors when explaining others' behavior

Self-serving bias

Tendency to attribute successes to internal factors and failures to external factors to maintain self-esteem

Locus of control

is the extent to which people believe they have control over events in their lives

Internal locus of control

Belief that one's own actions determine outcomes

External locus of control

Belief that outside forces (luck, fate, powerful others) determine outcomes

Mere exposure effect

Phenomenon where people tend to like a stimulus more simply because they've been exposed to it repeatedly over time

Self-fulfilling prophecy

When people's beliefs or perceptions about themselves or others lead them to behave in ways that elicit confirming behaviors from others

Social comparison

Evaluating oneself based on comparisons to others in society or social circles

Upward social comparison

Comparing oneself to someone seen as better off, which can inspire self-improvement but may also threaten self-esteem

Downward social comparison

Comparing oneself to someone seen as worse off, which can boost self-esteem but may hinder motivation to improve

Relative deprivation

Perception of being deprived of something one feels entitled to, often based on social comparisons

Stereotypes

are oversimplified, generalized beliefs about a particular group of people

Implicit attitudes

are unconscious or unacknowledged evaluations individuals hold about others

Belief perseverance

is the tendency to cling to a belief even when presented with contradictory evidence

Cognitive dissonance

is the mental discomfort experienced when actions and attitudes are inconsistent

Social institutions

are organized structures and norms that govern behaviors and meet societal needs.

Family

Primary social institution for early socialization, nurturing, and support.

Education

Formal and informal learning systems that impart knowledge, skills, and social values.

Religion

Provides moral guidelines, sense of community, and a way to cope with existential questions.

Social Norms

Established rules that dictate expected behaviors in specific social contexts.

Role Theory

Suggests that social roles come with specific expectations that influence individual behavior.

Conformity

Adjusting behaviors or beliefs to align with group norms.

Obedience

Complying with orders or directions from authority figures.

Socialization

Process of learning and internalizing societal norms, values, and behaviors, largely influenced by institutions.

Primary Socialization

Early socialization in the family setting.

Secondary Socialization

Learning appropriate behavior in smaller groups and institutions beyond the family.

Groupthink

Desire for harmony leads to consensus-seeking behavior, often at the expense of critical thinking.

Group Polarization

Tendency for group discussion to strengthen the prevailing opinion.

Social Loafing

Reduced effort by individuals when working in a group compared to working alone.

Id

Primitive desires and instincts, seeking immediate gratification.

Ego

Rational part that mediates between id and reality.

Superego

Internalized moral standards and values.

Repression

Unconscious exclusion of distressing thoughts.

Denial

Refusal to accept reality.

Projection

Attributing one’s own undesirable feelings to others.

Carl Jung

Introduced the concepts of collective unconscious and archetypes.

Alfred Adler

Emphasized the importance of social interest and feelings of inferiority.

Reciprocal Determinism

Concept by Albert Bandura that suggests an interaction between individual, behavior, and environment.

Observational Learning

Learning by observing others; highlights the role of modeling.

Self-Efficacy

Belief in one’s ability to succeed in specific situations.

Internal Locus

Belief that one controls their own fate.

External Locus

Belief that outside forces control outcomes.

Openness

Creativity and willingness to try new things.

Conscientiousness

Organization and dependability.

Extraversion

Sociability and enthusiasm.

Agreeableness

Compassion and cooperativeness.

Neuroticism

Emotional instability and negative emotions.

Drive-Reduction Theory

Motivation arises from biological needs that create internal states of tension (drives).

Incentive Theory

Behavior is directed by external rewards and punishments.

Arousal Theory

People are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal for peak performance.

Intrinsic Motivation

Driven by internal satisfaction and personal interest.

Extrinsic Motivation

Driven by external rewards or avoidance of punishment.