Exam 4 Motor Development

Socialization

learning through social interactions (who, what, how)

How do others impact our motor development?

coaches, friends, teammates

How can social support influence our motor development?

parents enroll children in activities to spark their interests

What is affected by our movement choices?

• personality

• friend making

• ability to ask others for help

• understanding right and wrong

Socialization

• teaches social roles and responsibility

• learns about societal norms

  American Popular Sports: football, basketball

  India Popular Sports: cricket, soccer

Sociocultural Constraint

• social values, norms, ideals, and stereotypes

• culturally specific concepts about movement behavior

• create an atmosphere that encourages socially acceptable activites and discourages ones that are not

Ex. Gender typing (women can’t play football)

Socialization Process

1. Socializing Agents

   -family, teachers, peers, and coaches

2. Social Situations

   -games, play environment, toys

3. Personal Attributes

   strength, skill, motivation, perceived ability

Three Process all lead to Social Role

Gender-Specific Serotyped Behavior

Sex: male & female biological characteristics/ individual constraint

Gender: refers to socially determined masculine and feminine characteristics/ sociocultural constraint

Socialization Agent/ Gender Typing

Socialization Agent- includes significant others, often encourage children to participate in “ gender appropriate” activities

Boys “masculine” sports = football and wrestling

Girls “feminine'“ sports = dance and gymnastics

Who creates gender typing?

• societal attitudes about gender-appropriate activities can restrict physical activity options for boys and girls

• attitudes linger but the # of girls participating in sports has dramatically increased

• Girls still lag behind boys in # of sports participants

• Girls are more likely to drop out of sports after high school

Title 9

• No person should be discriminated based on sex in federally funded institutes

• 1971 = less than 300,00 female athletes

• 2006 = 3 million female atheltes

• Male numbers increased too

When was Title 9 passed?

1972

Gender Stereotypes with Activities Examples

Ballet: feminine

Baseball: boy

Football: men

Significant Others in Society

• influential people who are considered socializing agents

• parents, siblings, coaches, parents, and peer

Parents

• very important in early childhood

• gender of both child and parents matters

• father tend to reinforce gender typing in boys

• same-sex parents may be more influential

• attitudes of parents are changing, especially a more mothers were sport participant

Siblings

• first playgroup

• girl’s sports participation is influenced by brothers and sisters

• as an individual leaves childhood, sibling influence diminishes

• patterns of family influence vary by social background, race, and location

Peer

• most important after childhood

• influence your interests

Coaches and Interest

• teachers and coaches must avoid providing aversive socialization which discourages participation

aversive socialization

humiliation or discouragement from teachers in front of friends that can ruin your inspiration

Social Situations

• play environment and games can act as constraints

• Lack of adequate spaces or games can diminish opportunities for gross-motor activities

• Gender-typed play environment, games, and toys can deprive kids of opportunities to perform different skills

Gender Typing: Toys

Boys Toys: more complex and encourage more roughness

Girls Toys: more soft and pink

Overall Toys: traditional gender roles are encouraged by toys

Depends on marketing, advertising, and packaging of toys leads to gender typing

Importance of Understand Sociocultural Constraints

• we teach activities favored by the dominant culture

• often unaware of our sociological or cultural assumptions

• need to examine personal bias

• By exploring socio-cultural constraints, we can gain greater insight into human motor development

Pyschosocial Influence

• interaction between individual functional constraints and environmental sociocultural constraints

• the same influences can affect different people in different ways

• encourages participation for one person and discourages participation for another person

• people react to the same situations in different ways

Self Esteem

personal judgment and belief

• capability, significance, success, worthiness

• description and evaluation

Emerges in early childhood

Marsh Model of Self-Concept

Overall: Global Self Concept

Academic or Nonacademic

Nonacademic: Emotion, Social, Physical

Physical Self-Concept

strength, activity, endurance, sporting abilities, coordination, flexibility, appearance, body fat, and health

Development of Self-Esteem

Social Interactions, Environment, Emotions

Development of Self-Esteem: Social Interations

• parent appraisal

• comparison of others

• teachers and coaches feedback

Development of Self-Esteem: Environment

• location

• which sports gear is available

• opportunities

Development of Self-Esteem: Emotions

• enjoyment

• pride

• excitement with winning

• disappointment and stress with failure

Casual Attributions

the reasons people give for their success and failures

• tend to act in ways that confirm their beliefs

• can affect self esteem

High Self-Esteem

1. Internal- responsible for their own success or failure

2. Stable- outcome- influencing factors are consistent from one situation to the next

3. Controllable- individual is in control of outcome-influencing factors

Low Self-Esteem

1. External- success and failure due to influences outside the individual

2. Unstable- outcome based on fluctuating influences (Ex. luck)

3. Uncontrollable- individual unable to control or influence the outcome

Participation in Sports: Persistance Characteristics

• Competence

• Affiliation

• Competition and Success

• Fun and Enjoyment

• Increase Fitness

  Competence Motivation Theory (Harter)

Participation in Sports: Withdrawal Characteristics

• Dislike of a coach

• lack of playing time

• too much pressure

• too much time required

• overemphasis on winning

• lack of fun anymore

• lack of progress

• no success

Participation in Sports: Two Levels of Goals

either mastery or performance

match climate to the developmental level of the children

Mastery Goal

• adaptive

• higher persistence

• uses an environment with higher levels of task difficulty

• high effort

• intrinsic motivation

• Reach potential

Performance Goals

• maladaptive

• more likely to quit and not persist

• give lower levels of effort

• extrinsic motivation

• “Good enough to win” syndrome

Adult Participation in Sports

as adults grow older, their participation decreases

Adult Participation in Sports: Common Psychological Factors

• stereotypes of appropriate activity levels

• limited access to facilities and programs

• childhood experiences

• concerns over personal limitations on exercise

• belief that exercise is harmful to health

• lack of role models

• lack of knowledge about appropriate exercise programs

Ways to Increase Sports Participation in Older Adults

1. Personal Incentive

   • mastery

   • affiliation

   • competition

   • health/fitness

   • stress

2. Sense of self

   • self-esteem

   • confidence

3. Perceived Options

Characteristics of Self-Esteem

• descriptive and evaluative

• global and domain-specific

• develop in childhood and become more refined during adolescence

Factors that change with age regarding Physical Activity

• individual functional constraint

• perception of physical activity

• need for physical activity

• motivation

Strength and Flexibility Constraint

individual functional constraint

Strength

ability to exert force

• must specify muscle group, movement, speed of movement, and joint angle

Force

exerted against resistance

Isotonic, Isometric, Isokinetic

Isotonic

word meaning ISO= same TONIC= tension

Limbs move

where there is constant tension

Ex. pushup, russian twist, bicep curls, squat

Isokinetic

ISO= same Kinetic= speed

Limbs move

constant velocity speed

Ex. running and biking at same pace

Isometric

Limbs do not move

there is no change in limb position

Ex. wall sit, plank, any exercise holds

Muscle Mass and Strength

• follows sigmoid pattern

• the force a muscle can exert depends on its cross-sectional area development

• Neurological factors are also involved (Motor units become involved over time as the brain learns to recruit them)

Motor Unit

motor neurons whose legs spread onto a muscle

Developmental Changes in Strength

• strength increases as children grow

• Boys and Girls are similar in strength until 13 years old

• Peak strength increase FOLLOWS peak muscle increase

• Endocrine function can influence strength (testosterone and estrogen)

• Among same-sized children of different ages, more mature children are stronger

Neural Changes in Development

• neural factors likely influence development by improved motor unit activations that occur with maturation

  First 8 weeks: use neural adaptations( motor unit firings)

  After 8 weeks, muscle fiber surface area increases so use hypertrophy

Mechanisms of strength increase

Strength in Adolescence and Young Adults

• males are generally stronger

• Size DOES NOT account for all gender differences

• Cultural norms affect motivation and habitual physical activity levels

After growth ceases, increases in muscle mass are associated with resistance training

Strength in Middle and Older Adults

• strength generally declines gradually after the 30’s

• Muscle mass declines in average older adults

• Loss Type 2 fibers first

• Lose more strength than muscle mass’

• some older adults don’t lose strength because it can be maintained by exercising often

Factors contributing to the loos of muscle strength with aging

• poor nutrients

• decrease in physical activities ( muscle atrophy)

• changes in muscle blood flow (blood oxygen and nutrients)

• Changes in nervous system ( slower reactions)

• increase in disease

Strength Training

Prepubescents

• can increase strength with training

• improved neuromuscular coordination plays a role

• youth should be monitored to avoid injury

Adolescents and Adults:

• increase strength and muscle (with resistance training)

• increase overtime with training

• cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, and arthritis

Flexibility

• ability to move a joint through full ROM

• joint specific

• benefits sports and dance performance

• Limited flexibility can be a rate limiter and a factor in injury

Assessment of Flexibility

Because flexibility is joint-specific, it must be measured for each joint

Goniometer

• The axis is placed over the joint center

• arm is aligned with a limb at extremes of movement range

Sit and Reach Test

• common measurement

• has disadvantages