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Social Psychology

Psychology that studies the effects of social variables and cognitions on individual behavior and social interaction.

Social Context

The real, imagined, or symbolic presence of other people, the activities and interactions that take place among people, the settings in which behavior occurs, and the expectations and social norms governing behavior in a given setting.

Major Themes of Social Psychology

The power of social situations, subjective social reality, and the promotion of human condition.

Social Roles

Patterns of behavior that are expected of persons in a given setting or group.

Social Norms

A group’s expectation regarding what is appropriate and acceptable for its members’ attitudes and behaviors in given situations.

Psychological Effects of Social Pressure

Prejudice, discrimination, blind obedience, and violence.

Conformity

The tendency for people to adapt their behaviors, attitudes, and opinions to fit the actions of other members of a group.

Normative Social Influence

Influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.

Asch Effect

A form of conformity in which a group majority influences individual judgments.

Factors Influencing Conformity (Asch)

The size of the majority, the presence of a partner who dissented from the majority, and the size of the discrepancy between the correct answer and the majority’s opinion.

Conditions That Increase Conformity

Feeling incompetent or insecure, being in a group of 3 or more, being impressed by the status of the group, having made no prior commitment, being observed, and cultural encouragement of respect for social standards.

Informational Social Influence

Influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality.

Sherif's Autokinetic Effect Experiment Aim

People conform to group norms when they are put in an ambiguous situation.

Obedience

Changing one’s behavior at the command of an authority figure.

Cultural Differences in Conformity

People from western cultures are more likely to be individualistic and don't want to be seen as being the same as everyone else, whereas eastern cultures value the needs of the family and other social groups before their own.

Role of Gender on Conformity

Women tend to show more conformity than men in public.

Groupthink

The mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic view of the alternatives.

Factors That Promote Groupthink

Isolation of the group, high group cohesiveness, directive leadership, lack of norms requiring methodical procedures, homogeneity of members’ social background, and high stress from external threats.

Group Polarization

When members of a group have similar, though not identical, views about a topic and discuss them, their opinions become more extreme and pronounced.

Social Facilitation

Tendency for improved performance of tasks in the presence of others.

Social Impairment

If it is a difficult task or you are not very good at it…you will perform WORSE in front of a group

Social Loafing

Tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts towards a common goal.

Deindividuation

Loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

Factors for Deindividuation

Anonymity, diffused responsibility, and group size.

Features of a Group

Roles, norms, and cohesiveness.

Social Reality

An individual’s subjective interpretation of other people and of relationships with them.

Halo Effect

A cognitive bias in which an observer's overall impression of a person, company, brand, or product influences the observer's feelings and thoughts about that entity's character or properties.

Reward Theory of Attraction

The theory that says we like those who give us maximum rewards or benefit at minimum costs; a form of social learning.

Social Exchange Theory

People help each other when there is a positive cost-benefit analysis; when the benefits outweigh the costs.

Sources of Attraction

Proximity, similarity, self-disclosure, and physical attractiveness.

Matching Hypothesis

A prediction that most people will find friends and mates that are perceived to be about their same level of attractiveness.

Expectancy-Value Theory

The theory that people decide to pursue a relationship by weighing the potential value of the relationship against their chances of succeeding in that relationship.

Cognitive Attributions

Explaining to ourselves why people act the way they do.

Attitude

A tendency to respond positively or negatively to a certain idea, person, object, or situation.

Three Components of Attitude

Affective, behavior, and cognitive.

Persuasion

The process by which one person tries to change the belief, opinion, position, or course of action of another through argument, pleading, or explanation.

Central Route of Persuasion

Focuses on facts and the content of the message in order to convince the listener.

Peripheral Route of Persuasion

Relying on peripheral factors like the personality of the speaker, or how the message was delivered.

Cognitive Dissonance

A highly motivating state in which people have conflicting cognitions (thoughts), especially when their voluntary actions conflict with their attitudes.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

When people’s cognitions and actions are in conflict (a state of dissonance) they often reduce the conflict by changing their thinking to fit their behavior.

Love

Strong affection for another person due to kinship, personal ties, sexual attraction, admiration, or common interests.

Three Components of Love (Sternberg)

Intimacy, passion, and commitment.

Situationism

Environmental conditions influence people’s behavior as much or more than their personal disposition does.

Dispositionism

Internal factors (genes, traits, character qualities) influence our behavior more than the situation we are in.

Attribution Theory

The idea that we give a causal explanation for someone's behavior.

Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)

The tendency to overemphasize personal traits while minimizing situational influences.

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency for us to judge ourselves by a double standard: successes are attributed to internal factors, failures to external factors.

Compliance

Changing one’s behavior as a result of other people directing or asking for the change.

Foot in the Door (FITD)

The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.

Door in the Face

A large request is made knowing it will probably be refused so that the person will agree to a much smaller request.

What is intelligence?

The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.

Name three contemporary theorists of Intelligence:

Charles Spearman, Howard Gardner, Robert Sternberg

What does 'g' stand for in Spearman's theory?

General Intelligence

What is the 'g factor'?

The ability to reason and solve problems; general intelligence

What is 's factor'?

The ability to excel in certain areas; specific intelligence

What are the two types of intelligence in Cattell's Theory of Intelligence?

Fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence

What is fluid intelligence?

The ability to solve new problems, use logic in new situations, and identify patterns; decreases with age

What is crystallized intelligence?

The ability to use learned knowledge and experience; increases with age

What did Howard Gardner believe about IQ Scores?

IQ scores measured only a limited range of human mental abilities

What is Savant Syndrome?

Score low on intelligence tests yet excel in abilities unrelated to general intelligence.

List the eight(nine) types of intelligences according to Howard Gardner:

Linguistic, Logical-mathematical, Spatial, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalist and Existential

According to Robert Sternberg, what are the three intelligences?

Analytical, Creative, Practical

What is Analytic Intelligence?

Intelligence that is assessed by intelligence tests

What is Creative Intelligence?

Intelligence that makes us adapt to novel situations, generating novel ideas.

What is Practical Intelligence?

Intelligence that is required for everyday tasks

What is Convergent Thinking?

Thinking that involves following a series of logical steps with the goal of arriving at the “correct” answer.

What is Divergent Thinking?

Thinking used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions; spontaneous, unorganized thought.

Who Introduced emotional intelligence?

Peter Salovey and John Mayer (1990)

What does it mean to perceive emotion?

Recognize emotions in faces, music, and stories

What does it mean to understand emotion?

Predict emotions, how they change and blend

What does it mean to manage emotion?

Express emotions in different situations

What does it mean to use emotion?

Utilize emotions to adapt or be creative

How do psychologists define intelligence testing?

A method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with others using numerical scores.

Who is credited with modern intelligence testing?

Alfred Binet

Why was the Binet-Simon test created?

Identify students who needed special help in coping with the school curriculum

List three features of the Binet-Simon Test:

The test had 4 important distinctions: Scores were interpreted at their current performance, Used to identify students in need of help, not label them or categorize them, Emphasized that training and opportunity could affect intelligence, Was empirically constructed

Who adapted Binet’s test for American school children and named the test the Stanford-Binet Test IQ Test?

Lewis Terman

What is Eugenics?

A social movement aimed at improving the human species through selective breeding.

What tests did David Weschler Develop?

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)

What three things must a psychological test be in order to be acceptable?

Standardized, Reliable, Valid

What is Standardization?

Establishment of consistent and standard methods of test administration.

What are 'Norms' in psychological testing?

Scores from a standardized group of people distributed mostly around the mean on the normal curve

What is Reliability in psychological testing?

The tendency of a test to produce the same scores again and again each time it is given to the same people

What is Split-half Reliability?

Dividing the test into two equal halves and assessing how consistent the scores are.

What is Test-Retest Reliability?

Using the same test on two occasions to measure consistency.

What is Validity?

Validity of a test refers to what the test is supposed to measure or predict.

What is Content Validity?

Refers to the extent a test measures a particular behavior or trait.

What is Predictive Validity?

Refers to the function of a test in predicting a particular behavior or trait.

How does a valid intelligence test divide people?

A valid intelligence test divides two groups of people into two extremes: the mentally retarded (IQ 70) and individuals with high intelligence (IQ 130)

What is Intellectual Disability?

Condition in which a person’s behavioral and cognitive skills exist at an earlier developmental stage than the skills of others who are the same chronological age.

What is the conceptual domain in context of the DSM-5 diagnosis of intellectual disability?

memory, reasoning, language, reading, writing, math, and other academic skills.

What is the social domain in context of the DSM-5 diagnosis of intellectual disability?

empathy, social judgment, interpersonal communication, and other skills that impact the ability to make and maintain friendships.

What is the practical domain in context of the DSM-5 diagnosis of intellectual disability?

self-management skills that affect personal care, job responsibilities, school, money management, and other areas

List three biological causes of intellectual disability:

Down syndrome, Fetal alcohol syndrome, Fragile X syndrome

What is the Flynn Effect?

In the past 60 years, intelligence scores have risen steadily by an average of 27 points.

What does the nature of twin studies and adoption studies show?

Fraternal twins raised together tend to show similarity in intelligence scores and identical twins raised apart show slightly less similarity in their intelligence scores.

What are the effects of early intervention on children's intelligence?

Early neglect from caregivers leads children to develop a lack of personal control over the environment and it impoverishes their intelligence.

What is stereotype threat?

A condition in which being made aware of a negative performance stereotype interferes with the performance of someone that considers himself or herself part of that group

In what sense are aptitude tests biased?

Sensitive to performance differences caused by cultural differences

In what sense are aptitude tests NOT biased?

Accurately predict performance of one group over the other