IPS132 Chapter 2

Paradigm

A pattern or model; in psychology, an approach or framework for understanding the human mind

Epistemology

A knowledge base; the study of knowledge

Psychological theory

Exists within a certain paradigm and is associated with certain paradigms

Structuralism (1875–1920s)

Focused on studying the structure of the human mind/consciousness, analysing it into basic elements such as feelings, sensations, and thoughts, using introspection

Criticism of Structuralism

Considered too simplistic, subjective, and unreliable for fully understanding and measuring behaviour

Contribution of Structuralism

Established psychology as a science through systematic, experimental methods to identify, analyse, and describe psychological phenomena

Functionalism (1888–1912)

Emphasised the functions of consciousness and awareness of experiences, focusing on helping people adapt; influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution

Functionalism Methods

Used observation, animal research, experiments, statistics, and study of heredity and mental abilities

Criticism of Functionalism

Overemphasised functional behaviour and learning

Behaviourism (1920–1960s ongoing)

First force in psychology; studied human nature objectively through observable behaviour; focused on stimulus–response associations and environmental determinism

Classical Conditioning (Watson)

Learning occurs through associations between stimuli and responses

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

Behaviour is influenced by its consequences; behaviours are repeated if outcomes are desirable

Social Cognitive Approach (Bandura)

People can cognitively control learning through perception, expectations, and modelling (observational learning)

Self-efficacy (Bandura)

A person’s belief in their ability to achieve goals, important in career counselling

Personality in Behaviourism

Consists of learned observable behaviours and thoughts; shaped by deterministic environmental and circumstantial factors; learning is continuous

Gestalt Psychology (1900–1930)

Opposed structuralism; emphasised the wholeness of experience; “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts”

Phi Phenomenon

Illusion of movement when two lights flash in sequence and appear as one

Application of Gestalt

Considers all domains of functioning; applied to understanding culture, groups, and organisational climate

Psychoanalytic Paradigm (1885–1960s ongoing)

Second force in psychology; founded by Freud; studies unconscious processes in mental functions and disorders using free association

Three Levels of Consciousness

Conscious: Awareness and contact with reality (ego functions); Pre-conscious: Information just beneath the surface, easily retrievable; Unconscious: Repressed desires, memories, trauma

Three Psychic Structures

Id: Primitive drives (sex, eating), immediate gratification; Ego: Conscious, realistic thought and behaviour; Superego: Morality and conscience, applying social standards

Defence Mechanisms

Unconscious strategies to manage conflict (e.g., projection)

Personality Development (Psychoanalytic)

Shaped by how conflicts between psychic structures are resolved during early psycho-sexual stages (birth to ~6 years)

Table 2.2 – Freud’s Psycho-sexual Stages of Development

Oral Stage (0–18 months): Pleasure from mouth activities; fixation leads to dependency or aggression; Anal Stage (18 months–3 years): Toilet training; fixation leads to orderliness or messiness; Phallic Stage (3–6 years): Focus on genitals; Oedipus/Electra complex; fixation leads to vanity or recklessness; Latency Stage (6 years–puberty): Dormant sexual feelings; focus on skills and relationships; Genital Stage (puberty onwards): Mature sexual interests and relationships

Collective Unconscious (Jung)

Shared human experiences and archetypes

Application of Psychoanalysis in Work

Used to understand underlying dynamics in individuals and groups

Humanism (1950s ongoing)

Third force in psychology; person-centred approach focusing on growth, self-actualisation, and personal worth (Rogers, Maslow)

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Motivational model where self-actualisation is the highest goal; lower needs must be met first

Humanism in Management

Emphasises employees as individuals needing recognition, support, and growth

Cognitive Psychology (1950s onwards)

Returned to studying consciousness as “cognition”; focuses on higher mental processes and cognitive constructs

Cognitive Constructs

Mental models people create to understand and anticipate life events

Biological Psychology

Studies how genetics, neurology, and biology influence behaviour, thoughts, and feelings

Evolutionary Psychology

Behaviour and attributes are genetically programmed and shaped by evolution; body and mind are interdependent

Positive Psychology (1998 onwards)

Focuses on strengths, virtues, and wellbeing; aligns with Rogers and Maslow on self-actualisation

Trait Psychology

Personality approach based on enduring traits; uses models like the Three-, Five-, and 16-Factor Models

Five-Factor Model Traits (Table 2.3)

Openness: Imaginative, creative, curious vs. conventional; Conscientiousness: Organised, dependable, disciplined vs. careless; Extraversion: Sociable, energetic, assertive vs. reserved; Agreeableness: Compassionate, cooperative vs. suspicious; Neuroticism: Sensitive, nervous vs. resilient, confident

Application of Trait Psychology

Used in personality questionnaires and workplace contexts; limited in explaining the integrated nature of the mind

Socio-cultural Approach

Examines how culture and social factors influence behaviour; considers context in psychological practice

Emic Research

Studies personality in depth within a specific culture

Etic Research

Compares personality across cultures

African Approach

Emphasises collective identity, holism, spiritual and social interconnectedness; Ubuntu is central

Ubuntu

African philosophy of empathy, forgiveness, and shared humanity

Table 2.4 – African vs Western Worldview

African: Communal identity, holism, spiritual interconnectedness, emphasis on harmony with nature; Western: Individualism, analytical thinking, separation of mind and body, emphasis on independence

Eastern Approach

Influenced by religions like Buddhism and Hinduism; focuses on states of consciousness, collectivism, and unity with the cosmos

Eco-systemic Perspective

Views systems as interrelated parts; behaviour understood in context; emphasises Gestalt, holism, connectedness, and contextualisation

Personality in Eco-systemic Perspective

Fluid and shaped by the individual’s unique reality and the interaction of subsystems

Postmodernism

Rejects universal truths; meaning is subjective and contextual

Constructivism

People create their own mental models of reality

Deconstructivism

Changes meaning by reinterpreting existing constructs

Social Constructivism

Knowledge and meaning are formed through social interaction