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Advantages of asexual reproduction
Only one parent is needed
Uses less energy
Faster - don't need to find a mate
Disadvantages of asexual reproduction
No variation in population because the offspring are genetically identical to the parent
Means if the environment changes the whole population is affected - same with disease
Advantages of sexual reproduction
Produces variation in offspring, meaning if the environment changes it is likely that some organisms in the species will have good characteristics to survive - over time this leads to natural selection
Disadvantages of sexual reproduction
ā¢ Takes time and energy to find a mate
Isolated individual can't reproduce
What experiment did Mendel do
ā¢ Mendel studied how characteristics are passed on from plant to plant
ā¢ In his first experiment, he crossed a tall pea plant with a dwarf pea plant
in his second experiment, he crossed two tall pea plant offspring
What did Mendel conclude
Offspring have some characteristics that their parents have because they inherit āhereditary unitsā from each.
One unit is received from each parent.
Units can be dominant or recessive, and cannot be mixed together.
Explain why there are differences in the inherited characteristics as a result of alleles
ā¢ Alleles (different forms of the same gene) lead to differences in inherited characteristics.
ā¢ This is because different alleles code for different forms of the same protein
an allele that codes for a damaged form of a protein can cause illness.
Define chromosome
A structure found in the nucleus which is made up of a long strand of DNA.
Define gene
A section of DNA that codes for a protein
Define allele
Different versions of the same gene
Define dominant
An allele that is always expressed, even if the individual only has one copy
Define recessive
An allele that needs two copies to be expressed
Define homozygous
when an individual has two of the same allele for a gene
Define heterozygous
When an individual has two different alleles for a gene
Define genotype
The combination of two alleles that an individual possesses for each gene
Define phenotype
The physical expression of the genotype
Define gamete
An organismās reproductive cell
Define zygote
A fertilised egg cell
Describe how the sex of offspring is determined at fertilisation
ā¢ Men have X and Y chromosomes.
ā¢ Women have two X chromosomes.
ā¢ XX combination allows female characteristics to develop.
Equal chances of having boy and girl.
Describe the inheritance of ABO blood groups
ā¢ inheritance of blood groups is an example of codominance
ā¢ three alleles determine blood group inheritance instead of two
ā¢ alleles IA and IB are both codominant
ā¢ they are both dominant to IO
ā¢ IA results in production of antigen A in the blood
ā¢ IB results in production of antigen B in the blood
IO results in no antigens being produced in the blood
Describe how sex-linked genetic disorders are inherited
ā¢ Y chromosomes miss some genes found in the x chromosome.
ā¢ This means a man (XY) will have only one allele for some genes on the X chromosome (because those genes are missing on the Y chromosome).
ā¢ If the allele for on of these X chromosome genes causes a genetic disorder, the man will develop this.
The allele a man has in the X chromosome, dominant or not, will always be expressed (since there is only one)
What are most phenotypic features the result of
Most phenotypic features are the result of multiple genes rather than single gene inheritance.
Describe the causes of variation that influence phenotype including genetic variation
ā¢ Different characteristics can arise as a result of random mutation, and sexual reproduction
ā¢ Random mutation occurs in gametes to produce offspring with brand new characteristics
Sexual reproduction causes the offspring to have a combination of characteristics from mother and father
Describe the causes of variation that influence phenotype including environmental variation
ā¢ Characteristics can also be caused by an organism's environment
ā¢ For example a child who does receive adequate nutrition will not grow to their full height
ā¢ these changes are not heritable
Outcomes of the Human Genome Project
Helped scientists to discover which genes predispose people to certain diseases
ā¢ Doctors could provide more specific advice on the best lifestyle and diet to help people delay the onset of diseases, or avoid them entirely
allowed doctors to design new dugs specifically tailored to those with genetic variation
Finally, allows doctors to identify which faulty alleles cause inherited disorders
There is usually ____ within a population of a species, andĀ _____
there is usually extensive genetic variation within a population of a species, and these arise through mutations
Do mutations affect the phenotype
ā¢ Most genetic mutations have no effect on the phenotype
ā¢ Some mutations have a small effect on the phenotype
ā¢ It is rare for a single mutation to significantly affect the phenotype
Explain the role of meiotic cell division
Meiosis produces four daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes
this results in the formation of genetically different haploid gametes
Describe DNA
A polymer made up of:
two strands coiled to form a double helix
Strands linked by a series of complementary base pairs joined together by weak hydrogen bonds
Nucleotides that consist of a sugar and phosphate group with one of the four different bases attached to the sugar
What is a genome
Entire DNA of an organism
What is a gene
A section of DNA that codes for a specific protein
Explain how DNA can be extracted from fruit
Mix together water, salt and washing up liquid
Heat this mixture
Peel a kiwi and crush with a pestle and mortar
Add the mixture to the kiwi
Filter the solution
Add the filtrate into a test tube
Add pineapple juice to the test tube and leave it to rest
Add cold ethanol to the solution and wait
What should be the result of the experiment
After ten minutes you should see a white mass at the top of the test tube
This is DNA
Why do you add pineapple juice
It contains the enzyme bromelain
Bromelain breaks down proteins attached to DNA
Means you can see the DNA more clearly
Why do you add ethanol
Causes the DNA to precipitate and become visible at the top of the container
Definition of mutation
Random change to the base sequence of DNA
If thereās no medical treatment for a fatal inherited condition, what will happen to the frequency of alleles
Frequency of alleles will decrease
Because individuals affected will die + wonāt have children
This means the allele is not passed on to offpsring
What causes a protein to fold incorrectly
a mutation in the coding region of a gene changes the sequence of amino acids
What is the result of a mutation that happens in the non-coding region
RNA polymerase is unable to bind
Transcription does not occur
Protein cannot be produced
What is the result of a mutation that happens in a gene
Amino acid sequence may change, changing protein structure
What are the two steps of protein synthesis
Transcription and translation
Explain transcription
RNA polymerase binds to the non coding region of DNA
RNA polymerase moves along the DNA, unwinding helix and separating strands
Free RNA nucleotides pair u with exposed complementary bases
RNA polymerase forms bonds between the free RNA nucleotides, forming mRNA
mRNA leaves nucleus and travels to ribosome
Explain translation
mRNA leaves nucleus and moves to ribosome
Ribosome reads 3 bases at a time
tRNA brings amino acids that are specific depending on the anticodon to ribosome
tRNA has an anticodon that is complementary to codons on mRNA
Amino acids join to form a polypeptide
When a stop codon is reached, the polypeptide is complete so it detaches from the ribosome
The polypeptide folds up into a unique 3D structure called a protein. Its shape is determined by the order of amino acids
Describe how mRNA is used to make proteins
By translation
mRNA leaves nucleus and joins to ribosomes
tRNA carries amino acids
tRNA joins to mRNA
Bases are read in groups of three
Amino acids are joined together to make polypeptides
Describe how a section of DNA determines the structure of a protein
Gene codes for protein
Sequence of bases determines sequence of amino acids
One codon for one amino acid
Several amino acids make up a protein
What is the difference between DNA and RNA
DNA
double strand
deoxyribose sugar
T base
RNA
single strand
ribose sugar
U base replaces T