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critical thinking

thinking that does not automatically accept arguments and conclusions rather it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluate evidence, and assess conclusions

hindsight bias

The tendency to believe after learning an outcome that one would have foreseen it also known as the I knew it all along phenomenon

Peer reviewers

Scientific experts who evaluate a research articles theory, originality, and accuracy

theory

an explanation, using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

hypothesis

A testable prediction often implied by a theory

falsifiable

The possibility that an idea, hypothesis or theory can be disproven by observations or experiment

operational definition

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures (also known as operationalization).

replication

Repeating the essence of a research study usually with different participants in different situations to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.

case study

A non-experimental technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalistic observation

A non-experimental technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

survey

A non-experimental technique for obtaining the self reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group usually by questioning a representative random sample of the group

social desirability bias

Bias from peoples responding in ways they presume a researcher expects or wishes.

self- report bias

bias when people report their behavior inaccurately

sampling bias

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

random sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

population

All those in a group being studied from which random samples may be drawn note:(except for national studies this does not refer to a country’s whole population).

correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

correlation coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1.00 positive1.00)

variable

anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure

scatter plot

A graphed cluster of dots each of which represents the values of two variables the slope of the point suggest the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggest the strengths of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation )

illusory correlation

perceiving a relationship where none exist or perceiving a stronger than actual relationship

regression toward the mean

The tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back toward the average

experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (dependent variable)by a random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other development factors

experimental group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment that is to one version of the independent variable

Control group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment contrast with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

confounding variable

in an experiment a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s result

experimenter bias

bias caused when researchers may unintentionally influence their results to confirm their own beliefs

quantitative research

a research method that relies on quantifiable, numerical data.

mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance thus minimizing preexisting differences between different groups

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo commonly used in drug-evaluation studies

single-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which the research participants are ignorant (blind) about whether they have received the treatment or a placebo

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below

histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

debriefing

a post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that a result (such as a difference between samples) occurred by chance, assuming there is no difference between the populations being studied

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

percentile rank

the percentage of scores that are lower than a given score

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

independent variable

in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose wether they wish to participate

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to

qualitative research

a research method that relies on in-depth, narrative data that are not translated into numbers

dependent variable

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the admission of an inherit substance or cognitive, which the recipient assumes is an active agent

meta-analysis

a statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion

normal curve

a symmetrical bell shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes (also called normal distribution)

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups; include measures of central tendency and measures of variation

effect size

the strength of the relationship between two variables. the larger the effect size the more one variable can be explained by the other