Bullying

Bullying (Olweus, 2013)

Strategic, repeated aggression within a power-imbalanced relationship to cause harm.

Physical Bullying

Hitting, kicking, pushing, or damaging property.

Verbal Bullying

Name-calling, insults, teasing, or intimidation.

Social/Relational Bullying

Spreading rumours, exclusion, or reputation damage.

Cyberbullying

Online abuse through DMs, revenge porn, or impersonation.

Bullying Measurement Methods

Self-report, peer-report, and parent/teacher reports with varying accuracy.

Bullying Prevalence

11% are victims, 10% are bullies, and 6% are bully-victims.

Social Information Processing Biases

Aggressive children attribute hostility and seek dominance (Crick & Dodge, 1994).

Theory of Mind in Bullies

Advanced understanding of others’ thoughts aids manipulation (Sutton et al., 1999).

Moral Disengagement

Justifying harm by blaming victims or rationalizing actions (Gini, 2006).

Roles in Bullying

Bully, assistant, reinforcer, defender, bystander (85% of incidents involve bystanders).

Bullies’ Social Goals

Pursue dominance and agentic goals.

Victims’ Social Goals

Focus on avoidance and submissive goals.

Bullying and Popularity

Some bullies maintain high peer visibility and status.

School Climate and Bullying

Poor climates correlate with higher bullying rates; positive climates reduce them.

Cyberbullying Features

Anonymous, 24/7 harm with faster, broader reach.

Cyberbullying Prevalence

3–50% of young people experience it; 50–90% overlap with traditional bullying.

Cyberbullying Outcomes

Increases depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, and academic struggles.

Deviant Peer Relationships

Peer interactions reinforcing rule-breaking or aggressive behaviour.

Deviant Talk

Discussion of antisocial behaviours predicts increased aggression (Piehler & Dishion, 2007).

Peer Rejection

Aggressive children face exclusion, predicting later antisocial issues (Hay et al., 2004).

Developmental Cascades

Early deviance → Peer rejection → Deviant peers → School failure and criminality.

Homophily

Peers associate based on similarity via selection (choosing similar friends) and socialization (mutual influence).

Deviancy Training

Reinforcement of aggression through peer interactions.

Peer Contagion

Mutual influence spreading behaviours like aggression or body dissatisfaction.

Appearance-Based Teasing

Linked to body dissatisfaction and dieting behaviours.

Body Image and Peers

"Fat talk" clusters in friend groups, increasing dissatisfaction.

Peer Influence on Depression

Close friendships influence depressive symptoms via co-rumination and negative feedback loops.

Moderators of Peer Influence

Individual traits (e.g., anxiety), peer attributes (e.g., popularity), and relationship quality.

Positive Peer Influence

Promotes social behaviour, academic success, and group stability.

Effective Anti-Bullying Strategies

Education, parent involvement, peer mentoring, and school-wide campaigns.