short-term memory
its a self activated memory that holds a few items briefly
sensory memory
is the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information into the memory system
iconic memory
is the momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli
echoic memory
is the momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli.
long-term memory
is the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.
procedural memory
is memory involved i automatic motor movement
flashbulb moments
vivid memories of an often emotionally significant moment or event
long-term potentiaton
an increase in neuron-firing potential after a brief, rapid stimulation
retrieval cues
are other bits of spatial information that help recall memories from a web of neurons.
mood congruency
the tendency to recall memories that are consistent with ones current mood
serial-position effect
the tendency to remember the names or info the beginning or end of a list.
stereotype threat
a situational predicament in which people are or feel themselves to be at risk of conforming to stereotypes about their social group.
chunking
the organizing of information into familiar, manageable units.
mnemonics
memory aid, like acronyms, and other tricks we use to remember information.
spacing effect
the spacing of learning and relearning(review) information across several days or weeks rather than cramming the information.
testing effect
has been shown to be more effective than re-reading or cramming
Hermann Ebbinghuas
pioneered research regarding relearning, and analyzed memory data for patients finding that most information tended to drop off quickly, leaving one with less than 25% of their originally-learned knowledge after a month.
Anterograde amnesia
is the condition in which patients fail to develop new memories
retrograde amnesia
is the failure to retrieve old information from one’s past
unable to recall events that occurred before the development of amnesia
proactive interference
is the disruptive effect of prior learning recall of new information
retroactive interference
occurs when learning disrupts the recall of old information
misinformation effect
the incorporating of misleading information into one’s memory of account
Elizabeth Loftus
pioneered research on misinformation effect by working with eyewitness account in the legal system.
source amnesia
attributing an event or memory to the wrong source-occurs when our brains fail to retrieve a memory.
algorithm
a methodical, logical approach that guarantees solving a particular problem
Heuristics
are a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and educated-guesses to solve problems efficiently.
Wolfgang Koehler
pioneered insight research with his experiment on chimpanzees
insight
a sudden realization of a problem’s solution
mental set
the tendency to approach a problem the same way
functional fixedness
a cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used
intuition
is an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or though as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.
Jonathan Haidt
decisions are based primarily on intuitive predispositions and rationalized after the fact
confirmation bias
profoundly misleads our judgements we tend to almost-exclusively use or remember information that confirms what we already believe, and readily dismiss information that runs counter to our intuitions.
belief perseverance
the clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.
representative heuristics
may cause one to judge the likelihood of events or situations based on stereotypes, cause them to miss or dismiss relevant information.
availability heuristics
may also mislead us regarding memory as they cause us to estimate the likelihood of an event based on the availability in memory.
Dr. Steven Pinker
found that people believe violence and conditions are getting worse due to the prominence of headlines that feature shootings, terrorism riots, etc., but in actuality, all measures of violence, disorder and assault have dropped to all-time, historic lows
overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct
framing
is the wording or way an issue or question is posed
creativity
the ability produce novel and valuable ideas
convergent
is thinking that narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single, best solution
divergent thinking
takes place mainly in the frontal lobes on the right hemisphere
Expertise
a well-developed base of knowledge provides more building blocks with which to create novel ideas and uses
Imaginative thinking
having mastered a problem’s basic elements, we tend to redefine or explore it in a new way, allowing different perspectives
A venturesome personality
seeks new experiences, tolerates ambiguities and risks, and perseveres by overcoming obstacles
Intrinsic motivation
being driven, interested in, or satisfied to constantly think about and analyze
A creative environment
support innovation, team-building, and communication
Noam Chomsky
discovered human beings are predisposed to grammatical structures
Broca’s area
the area in the left hemisphere that controls language expression
aphasia
the inability to understand or formulate language
babbling stage
which is a series of indiscernible sounds and noises
Phonemes
are any of the perceptually distinct units of sound in a specified language that distinguish one word from another
Morphemes
are a meaningful morphological unit of a language that cannot be further divided
syntax
is the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language.
Wernicke’s Area
Area of the brain that controls language production.