PHIL 103 Midterm 2

Validity

An argument is valid if, and only if, it is not possible both that (1) all the premisses are true, and (2) the conclusion is false

Soundness

An argument is sound if, and only if, the argument is both (1) valid, and (2) all the premises are true 

Inductive Arguments

An ampliative argument in which the premisses, if true, make it probable that the conclusion is true as well

Deductive Arguments

Constructed such that, if all the premisses are true, the conclusion cannot be false

Statistical Generalization

A sentence that states that some proportion of members of one class are members of another class

Universal Generalization

A sentence that states that all or none of the members of one class are members of another class

Ambiguity

When a word or expression has several distinct, non overlapping meanings

Vagueness

When a term has borderline areas in which it is unclear whether or not the term applies, or if it has several overlapping meanings

Use

Refer to something

Mention

Talk about the word

Fallacy

An argument in which the premisses provide only very weak support, or no real support, for the conclusion

Extensional Definition

The extension of a term consists of all the objects (or individuals) to which the term may be correctly applied

Explicit Extensional Definition

All the items in the set/class

Denotative Definition

Partial list of items in set/class

Ostensive Definition

A nonverbal form of definition in which pointing or some other way of indicating the extension of a term is used to give the meaning of the term

Intensional Definition

The intension of a term is the set of properties (or attributes) shared by all and only those objects to which the term refers

Lexical Definition

To present the accepted standard use of a term

Stipulative Definition

To introduce a new term into the language

Precising Definition

Reduce the vagueness of a term

Theoretical Definition

To construct a theory; explicit or implicit

Persuasive Definition

To express or evoke an attitude towards things referred to by the term

Operational Definition

Specifies a publicly observable and repeatable operation with a specified outcome that determines whether a sentence containing the expression is correctly applicable to a given situation

Synonymous-type Definition

Definition of a term that gives its term/phrase or anything with similar meaning

Statistical Syllogism

An inductive form that closely resembles the deductive form of syllogism, but its general premiss is a syllogism, but its general premiss is a statistical generalization rather than a universal generalization

Fallacious Appeal to Pity

Sympathy or pity for the circumstances of a particular person is inappropriately put forth or accepted as evidence for a conclusion

Fallacious Appeal to Force

A threat of force is inappropriately put forth or accepted as evidence for a conclusion

Fallacy of Equivocation

The use of an ambiguous expression in more than one of its senses in a single context

Fallacy of Incomplete Evidence

Occurs when the requirement of taking account of all relevant available evidence is violated

Fallacy of Black-and-white Thinking

A mistake in reasoning that occurs when it is supposed that only two alternatives are available although in fact others are possible

Fallacious Argument from Authority

When the authority cited is not a genuine expert in the field of concern, when the authority is speaking outside their field of expertise, or when experts in the area of concern disagree among themselves

Fallacious Argument from Consensus

When majority opinion does not constitute a good reason to believe the truth or falsity of a statement

Fallacy of Ad Hominem Circumstantial

Inappropriate attack of the person’s circumstances

Fallacy of Ad hominem Abusive

Inappropriate attack on the character of the person

Fallacy of Ad Hominem tu Quoque

Inappropriate attack of the person for being associated with the position criticized in the argument; criticize for being inconsistent

Fallacy of Biased Statistics

Committed when the sample used in an inductive generalization lacks the required variety and is thus, not representative

Fallacy of Circular Reasoning

Assumes as a premise just what one tries to prove in the conclusion

Fallacy of False Analogy

Committed when an attempt to establish a conclusion is on the basis of irrelevant analogies

Fallacy of Hasty Generalization

Committed when sample size of an inductive generalization is not big enough

Fallacy of Misleading Vividness

committed when an inductive generalization that is strongly supported by premises citing sufficient and unbiased statistics is rejected

Fallacy of Slippery Slope

Committed when one reasons about something like tumbling dominoes

Causal Argument

An argument that states that a causal relationship holds (or fails to hold) between two tpes of things or events; conclusion is a causal claim

Causal Claims

Statements about causes

Antecedent Circumstances

The events or conditions that occurred earlier

Mill’s Method of Agreement

A way to identify the cause of a phenomenon by finding the single circumstance that is common to all instances where the phenomenon occurs

Mill’s Method of Difference

If an instance where a phenomenon occurs and an instance where it does not occur have every circumstance in common except for one, then that single differing circumstance is the cause or effect of the phenomenon

Mill’s Method of Residues

Use known causes to account for as much of the complex effect as possible and then invoke an additional cause to account for the remainder

Mill’s Joint Method of Agreement and Difference

Combines the methods of agreement and difference to more strongly establish a causal link between a factor and a phenomenon

Mill’s Method of Concomitant Variation

A logical technique for inferring a causal relationship by observing that when one phenomenon changes, another phenomenon also changes

Necessary Conditions

Without A, B will not occur

Sufficient Conditions

Whenever A occurs, B will also occur