BIO 1111 - Midterm 2 T+D

chapters 5, 20-22

anatomy

the study of structure and the relationships among structures

physiology

the study of how body structures function

tissue

• integrated group of similar cells that perform a specific function

• made up of cells, junctions, and extra-cellular material

epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous

4 major categories of tissue

epithelial tissue

feature

• sheets of closely packed cells

• covers body surfaces and lines internal organs and cavities

• has nerves but no blood vessels

• always has free surface exposed to air or fluid

function:

• barrier to mechanical injury, invasion of microbes, and fluid loss

• some specialized for secretion or absorption roles

• makes up all glands

squamous, cuboidal, columnar

types of epithelial tissue

simple squamous epithelial tissue

• single layer of flat cells

• very thin

• diffusion

• has specific name in some organs

stratified squamous epithelial tissue

• several layers of sq_____ cells

• protects against abrasion

• ex. skin, oral cavity lining, vagine

• anything with a lot of mechanical stress

simple cuboidal epithelial tissue

simple layer of cubed shaped cells

• function: absorption or secretion

• ex. lining of kidney tubules, thyroid gland, pancreas ducts etc.

stratified cuboidal epithelial tissue

multiple layers of cuboidal cells

• function: secretion and protection

• ex. sweat glands, mammary gland, esophogeal gland and ducts

simple columnar epithelial tissue

single layer of column shaped cells

• function: secreation

  • ex. GI track (secreting digestive juices)

• function: absorption

  • microvilli to increase surface area

  • some lined with cilia (ex. respiratory system to remove mucus)

transitional epithelium

• varies in appearance (stratified cuboidal → stratified squamous)

• stretching

• bladder/uterus

no (blood tissue)

do all connective tissues provide structural support to your body?

connective tissue

• sparce cells

• manufactures and secretes an extra-cellular matrix

  • composed of fibers embedded into liquid, solid, or gel

• makes up basic support structures of the body

• connects other tissues into framework

• holds organs in place, attaches epithelia to other tissues

loose, fibrous, adipose, blood, bone, cartilage

6 types of connective tissue

loose connective tissue

• weave of fibres (mesh bag)

• binding and packing materials

• holding other organs and tissues in place

• binds epithelia to underlying tissues (under epithelial)

fibrous connective tissue

• dense → arrangement of collagen fibres in parallel bundles

• great tensile strength

• found in tendons and ligaments

tendons

connects muscle to bone

ligaments

connects bone to other bones

adipose tisuse

• stores fat in cells distributed in its matrix

• insulation and storage

blood tissue

• liquid extracellular matrix of plasma

cellular components:

• leukocytes

• erythrocytes

• platelets

• b_____ cells are made of red marrow

plasma

water, salts, and proteins

leukocytes

white blood cells, immune system

erythrocytes

red blood cells, oxygen transport

bone tissue

provides support and protection for the vertebrate body and organs

• matrix of collagen fibres embedded in calcium salts

  • makes bones hard but not brittle

• vascularized (contains nerves and blood vessels) able to heal rapidly

cartilage tissue

composed of collagen fibres embedded in rubbery matrix

• comprises skeleton of all vertebrate embryos

• eventually replaced with bones

• adults → cushioning and absorbing shock

• ex. nose, ears, trachea, invertebral disks, ends of some bones

• not vascularized → heals poorly

muscle tissues

consists of long cells → muscle fibres

• each cell contains many contractile proteins (actin + myosin)

  • contraction creates force to generate movement

skeletal, cardiac, smooth

3 types of muscle tissue

skeletal muscle

responsible for voluntary movements

• straight

• sits on top of each other

cardiac mscle

• pumps blood with involuntary movements

• branched

smooth muscle

involuntarily moves the wals of internal

nervous tissue

• senses stiumuli and rapidly transmits signals from one part of the animal to another

  • coordinates and controls body movements

• major cell is neuron

  • carries signals through electrical impulses

neuron

cell body, dendrite, axon

glial cells

supportive cell of neuron

• insulates axon with myelin for faster signal transduction

• nourish + regulate neurons

energy

the capacity to perform work

kinetic energy

energy that is actually doing work

• energy an object possesses due to its motion

heat

the energy associated with motion of molecules

light

another kind of kinetic energy

potential energy

stored energy

• energy stored in a system due to its position

• most important energy to the cell

thermodynamics

the study of energy transformation

energy can be changed from one form to another

• cannot be created nor destroyed

first law of thermodynamics

enzyme-controlled chemical reactions

how do living cells transform energy?

• energy changes are not 100% efficient

• energy conversions increase disorder, or entropy

second law of thermodynamics

entropy

the energy of randomness

• if a system is becoming more ordered, then its surrounding becomes more disordered

• some energy is always lost as heat

• heat is disordered energy

cellular metabolism

all reactions in a cell

catabolic pathways

release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler compounds

exergonic

release energy

anabolic pathways

consume energy to build complex molecules from simpler ones

endergonic

require energy

energy coupling

energy released from exergonic reactions being used to drive endergonic reactions

ATP

what mediates most energy coupling in cells

• used do drive almost all endergonic reactions in the cell

energy is released

when atp is hydrolyzed into ADP + P….

ATP (definition)

• renewable resource

• currency of energy

• energy stored is the energy released in exergonic reactions

• made in mitochondria

phosphorylation

phosphate is taken out

glycolysis

the universal ATP generation pathway

• takes place in cytoplasm

• breakdown of 6-carbon glucose into two 3-carbon products

• net of 2 molecules of ATP are made

• broken down further through cellular respiration or fermentation

cellular respiration

3-carbon product broken down when oxygen is available

• aerobic energy harvesting

• takes place in mitochondria

• o2 is consumed as glucose, broken down to CO2 and H2O

  • cell captures energy released in ATP

• 28 ATP molecules generated

fermentation

breakdown of 3-carbon product if oxygen is not available

• anaerobic conditions

• generates net 2 ATP/glucose molecule

• not as efficient

• regenerates organic molecules used by glycolysis

• does not produce any ATP

alchohol fermentation

• yeast + bacteria

• pyruvate breaks down to CO2 and ethanol

lactic acid fermentation

• used by muscle cells when need for atp > O2 delivery

• used by red blood cells

• makes cheese, yogurt

• lactate is produced from pyruvate

• build up in muscles cause soreness

enzymes

proteins that act as biological catalysts

• life’s reactions would take too long without them

• selective

• specific due to shape and amino acid chains

• functions optimally at a specific temp, pH, and salt concentration

catalyst

chemical that speeds up the rate of a reaction without being changed/consumed

• used over and over

activation energy

amount of energy reactants must absorb to start a chemical reaction

• often supplied in form of heat from surroundings

• enzymes used to speed up reactions

lowering energy barriers

what enzymes do to speed up reaction process

substrate

the specific reactant on which an enzyme acts

active site

the site on an enzyme to which the substrate binds

competitive inhibitors

• blocks substrate from entering the active site

• reduces an enzyme’s productivity

noncompetitive inhibitors

• bind to the enzyme somewhere other than the active site

• changes shape of the active site, preventing substrate from binding

cell/plasma membrane

• acts as boundary between interior of cell and extracellular environment

• controls what enters and what exists the cell

• organizes chem reactions of cell

• holds teams of enzymes that function in metabolism

• fluid mosaic of lips and proteins

  • lipid bilayer

  • protein molecules embedded in plasma membrane, involved in different functions

  • carbohydrates act as cell identification tags on surface of membrane

membrane fluidity

• consistency of salad oil

• must be fluid in order to function properly

saturated fatty acids

• all c-c are single bonds

• straight chained → allows maximum interaction of fatty acid tails

• lipids packed close with each other

• membrane less fluid

• solid at room temperatures

• can clog arteries (animal fats)

cis-unsaturated fatty acids

• some c=c bonds (double bonds

• bent chain space tails apart

• not packed together as titlely

• membrane more fluid

• liquid at room temp

• does not clog arteries (vegetable fats)

cholesterol

• acts as fluidity buffer

• has different effects on membrane fluidity and different temps

• warm → restrains movement of phospholipids (maintain stiffness)

• cool → maintains fluidity, preventing tight packing of phospholipids

• found on exterior surface of cell membraine

• ID tags of cells

• specificity for cell to cell protein interactions

glycolipids

sugars attached to a lipid

ex. blood antigens that determine blood type

glycoproteins

sugars attached to protein

• ex. protein receptors, collagen

agglutination

• when antibody interacts with antigen of the other cell

• blood clumps up

• can clog up system

peripheral proteins

• entirely on membrane surface

• ionic and h-bond interactions with hydrophilic lipid and protein groups

integral proteins

• possesses hydrophobic domains which are anchored to hydrophobic lipids

• can be transmembrane proteins

selectively permeable

membranes are…

permeability of the lipid bi-layer

• hydrophobic (nonpolar) molecules dissolve in the lipid bilayer and pass through membrane rapidly

• polar molecules and ions do not cross membrane easily

transport proteins

• spans membrane

• each is specific to one or a few solutes

• some are channels, others are transporters

diffusion

• passive transport

  • substances _____ through membranes without work of the cell

• tendency for particles of any kind to spread out spontaneously from where they are most concentrated to where they are less concentration

• no energy required

simple diffusion

substances moving down concentration freely through lipid bilayer

• only small, non-polar molecules and water can diffuse freely through lipid bilayer

facilitated diffusion

substances moving down concentration gradient through proteins

• large, polar, charged molecules, pass through selective protein pores

• type of passive transport, does not require energy

osmosis

diffusion of water across selectively permeable membrane

• diffuses across membrane from region of low solute concentration to region of high solute concentration

hypertonic

environment has higher solute concetration compared to the inside of the cell

hypotonic

environment has lower solute concentration relative to the inside of the cell

isotonic

equal concentration of solutes inside and outside cell

osmoregulation

the control of water balance

active transport

• transport proteins can move solutes across protein against concentration gradient

• requires energy (ATP)

• Na+/K+ pump very important

exocytosis

• active transport

• the movement of large molecules or particles ot the outside of the cell

• membrane bround vesicle fuses with membrane and expels contents

endocytosis

the movement of large molecules or particles inside of the cell

• membrane folds inward, trapping material from outside

organ

• made up of several tissues that cooperate to perform specific functions

• layered in arrangement

organ system

comprised of several organs with separate functions that act in a coordinated manner

• interdependent → work togtether

movement and structural support

skeletal and muscular systems are for…

skeletal system

• supports body

• provides framework for muscles

• protects organs

• enforced with calcium salt and collagen

skeletal muscles

• moves parts of body

• attached to bone and cartilage

• produces heat

control and coordinate body functions

the nervous and endocrine systems…

transports gases, nutrients, and waste

• heart pumps blood throughout body

• blood supplies the body with gases and nutrients and carries wastes from organs to disposal sites

the circulatory/cardiovascular system…

• protects body from infection

• supplements circulation

• 1 works with the other to protect the body

the lymphatic and immune system…

• regulates the exchange of gases between blood and environment

• supplies oxygen and disposes of carbon dioxide

the respiratory system…