Unit 5 Vocab: Long Version

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieval information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple choice test

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for the second time

encoding

the processing of information into the memory system- for example, by extracting meaning

storage

the retention of encoded information over time

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

long-term potentiation

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" (also known as declarative memory)

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

Implicit memory

retention independent of conscious recollection. Because of experience, you recall it without much effort. (Also known as non-declarative or procedural memory)

Iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

Echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units,; often occurs automatically

mnemonics

memory aid, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

shallow processing

Processing information based on its surface characteristics

deep processing

Processing information with respect to its meaning

semantic memory

general information about the world even if you haven't experienced it

episodic memory

memories of one's past, personal experiences

hippocampus

long term memory, part of the limbic system

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

Mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

anterograde amnesia

loss of the ability to create new memories after the event that caused amnesia

retrograde amnesia

loss of memory before the events that caused the amnesia

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

Retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

Misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

source amnesia

attributing to the wrong source of an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. This and misinformation effect. is at the heart of many false memories

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Prototype

a mental image or best example of a category

creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

convergent thinking

looks at obtaining one solution to a problem, less creative, one problem = one solution

divergent thinking

more often associated with creativity and creative thinking because it seeks to find several different solutions to the same problem.

algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees to solve a particular problem. Contracts with the usually speedier but also more error-prone-use of heuristics

heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

Insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions

Confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Fixation

the inability to see a problem from a different perspective, by employing a different mental set. According to Freud, a lingering focus on pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved

Mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

Representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of an event in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct- to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements

belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Framing

the way an issue is prosed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments

language

our spoken, written or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

Phoneme

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

morpheme

in language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or part of a word (such as a prefix)

Telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram- "go car"- using mostly nouns and verbs

grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

Aphasia

impairment of language, damage to the left or right hemispheres of the brain

Broca's area

controls language expression- an area usually in the left frontal lobe, that directs the muscle movements involving speech

linguistic determinism

Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think

Linguistic influence

the idea that language affects thought

Intelligence

mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

general intelligence (g)

a general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score

savant syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exception specific skill (ex. drawing)

grit

a personality trait characterized by perseverance and passion for achieving long-term goals.

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage and use emotions

intelligence test

a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores

achievement test

tests designed to assess what a person has learned

aptitude test

tests designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn

mental age

a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance

stanford-binet

the widely used American revision of Binet's original intelligence test

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 (IQ = (ma/ca) *100); on contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

is the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests

standardization

defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group

reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on 2 halves of the test, or on retesting

validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is suppose to

content validity

the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest

predictive validity

also called Criterion-Realted validity;the success which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores the criterion behavior

crystallized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

Cross-sectional study

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period