Canadian Indigenous History: Treaties, Colonization, and Legislation

Since when have Indigenous people lived on the land that is now Canada?

Since 'time immemorial.'

What historical empires established colonies to further economic interests?

Greeks, Romans, and the Ottomans.

How did the colonization of Canada begin?

It started out slow, with Indigenous people initially as allies with British and French militaries.

What was the economic relationship between Indigenous people and European settlers?

Economic interdependence, exemplified by the fur trade.

What is the significance of the Royal Proclamation of 1763?

It established procedural rules governing treaty-making in Canada.

What are the three significant aspects of the Royal Proclamation?

1. It recognized Indigenous people's rights to land in 'Indian territory.' 2. No lands could be taken without Indigenous consent. 3. Land agreements couldn't be made between individual Indigenous people and Europeans.

What ongoing issue exists between Indigenous people and the government regarding treaties?

There is conflict over the interpretation of treaties, with governments taking them literally while Indigenous communities view them as living documents.

What does the term 'Indigeneity' refer to?

The state of being Indigenous, related to Indigenous-ness, identity, territory, culture, community, and traditions.

What is the 'Doctrine of Discovery'?

A series of statements by popes asserting that non-Christian peoples had no inherent rights to their lands, justifying European claims to Indigenous territories.

How did colonialism affect Indigenous peoples in Canada?

Colonialism involved forcibly expropriating Indigenous lands, extracting resources, and establishing European political and economic systems while marginalizing Indigenous peoples.

What characterizes a settler-colonial relationship?

A relationship where power is structured into hierarchical social relations that facilitate the dispossession of Indigenous peoples of their lands and authority.

What is the significance of naming in the context of Indigenous identities?

Names can be externally imposed or internally adopted, influencing social and political priorities and mobilization for rights.

What are the three groups that make up the Aboriginal umbrella according to the 1982 Constitution of Canada?

Status Indians, Inuit, and Métis.

What was the Supreme Court of Canada's ruling regarding Inuit in 1939?

Inuit were to be considered 'Indians' for constitutional purposes.

What does the term 'Métis' refer to?

A term meaning 'half-caste' with varying definitions; recognized as a right-bearing group in Canada by recent court decisions.

What is the Indian Act of 1876?

Legislation that introduced criteria for determining who qualifies as 'Indian' and defined how individuals could lose their status.

What does enfranchisement mean in the context of Indigenous status?

The process through which individuals could lose or give up their legal status as an Indian, often through education or marriage.

What distinguishes non-status Indians from other Indigenous groups?

Non-status Indians lost their legal status through enfranchisement and are not included in the constitutional definition of Aboriginal Peoples in Canada.

What were the early relationships between Indigenous peoples and European settlers characterized by?

Complex interactions influenced by Indigenous peoples as military allies and mutual economic interdependence during the fur trade.

What was the Royal Proclamation of 1763?

A policy recognizing Indigenous peoples' rights to land and stipulating that no lands could be taken without their consent.

What is the significance of the term 'First Nations'?

It is commonly used to describe 'status' or 'registered' Indians in Canada.

What change did the Canadian government make regarding terminology in 2015?

The government switched from using 'Aboriginal' to 'Indigenous' as advised by the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.

What were some consequences of the 1939 Supreme Court decision for Inuit?

Inuit worked to overcome the constraints of being classified under the Indian Act.

What does the term 'Indian Act' imply about the Canadian government's view of Indigenous identity?

It reflects a legal framework that defines and regulates Indigenous identity and status.

How did intermarriage affect Indigenous women's status under the Indian Act?

Indian women who married non-Indian men lost their Indian status, while Indian men who married non-Indian women retained theirs.

What role did Indigenous peoples play in the fur trade?

They supplied goods and taught survival techniques, creating mutual economic dependence with European traders.

What does the term 'status Indian' refer to?

Individuals who are recognized as 'registered' Indians under the Indian Act.

What is the impact of labels on Indigenous communities?

Labels can influence social identity, political mobilization, and the dynamics of inclusion or exclusion.

What historical context does the term 'settler-colonial' provide?

It describes the ongoing dynamics of power and dispossession faced by Indigenous peoples in relation to settler societies.

What was the purpose of treaties made between Indigenous peoples and the Canadian government?

To extinguish Indigenous people's title to the land, providing a legal basis for settlement and economic expansion.

What are the numbered treaties?

A series of 11 treaties made between 1871 and 1930 aimed at land surrender and establishing reserve lands.

What were some common terms included in the treaties?

Setting aside reserve lands, cash annuities, and provision of agricultural implements.

What rights did the treaties grant Indigenous peoples?

The right to hunt, fish, and trap on Crown land.

What ongoing issues exist regarding the interpretation of treaties?

Disagreements between Indigenous peoples and the federal government on whether treaties are literal or living documents.

What was the government's assimilation policy in the mid-19th century?

Aimed to transform Indigenous peoples into white Euro-Canadians through legislation and policies.

What was the 1857 Act for the Gradual Civilization of the Indian Tribes of Canada?

Legislation aimed at 'correcting' Indigenous peoples through missionary and government actions.

What was the purpose of residential schools in Canada?

To erase Indigenous culture and replace it with European and Christian values.

What does the term 'cultural genocide' refer to in the context of residential schools?

The systematic attempt to eradicate Indigenous identities and cultures.

What was the outcome of the class action lawsuit related to residential schools in 2006?

Compensation, an apology, and a truth and reconciliation process were established.

Who is Dr. Cindy Blackstock?

A member of the Gitxsan First Nation and advocate for Indigenous children's rights, currently serving as Executive Director of First Nations Child & Family Caring Society of Canada.

What is the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC)?

Established in 2007 to create a historical record of the residential school system and address its impacts.

What are the 94 Calls to Action from the TRC?

Recommendations aimed at addressing the legacy of residential schools and promoting reconciliation.

What systemic inequalities were created by the Indian Act?

Legislation that denied status to women, restricted movement, enforced residential schools, and prohibited cultural practices.

What did the Indian Act prohibit regarding First Nations' cultural practices?

It forbade First Nations from speaking their native language and practicing their traditional religion.

What was the impact of the Indian Act on First Nations' political organization?

It prohibited First Nations from forming political organizations and restricted their ability to pursue legal claims.

What was the significance of the statement by Egerton Ryerson regarding education for Indigenous peoples?

It reflected the belief that education should wean Indigenous children from their ancestral habits and integrate them into 'civilized' life.

What does the term 'residential school denialism' refer to?

The refusal to acknowledge the historical abuses and impacts of the residential school system on Indigenous peoples.

What was the role of government officials in the establishment of residential schools?

They aimed to assimilate Indigenous children by replacing their cultural identities with European values.

What is the significance of the film 'Sisters and Brothers' by Kent Monkman?

It parallels the annihilation of bison with the colonial violence inflicted on Indigenous populations.

What does the term 'land surrender treaties' refer to?

Agreements made between Indigenous peoples and the government to relinquish land rights.

What were the consequences of coercion in land agreements with Indigenous peoples?

Indigenous peoples were sometimes tricked into giving up portions of their reserve land.

What were some of the restrictions imposed on First Nations by the Indian Act?

Restrictions included prohibiting the sale of alcohol and ammunition to First Nations and controlling their ability to sell products.