psychology paper 2 ALEVELS

research methods

How do scientists learn about the natural world?

Carefully planning, making, recording and analysing observations.

What is the third feature of science?

Public knowledge.

What are the three main kinds of research questions in psychology?

Descriptive, correlational, and causal.

What is descriptive research?

Observes and describes phenomena without manipulation.

What is correlational research?

Examines relationships between variables.

What is causal research?

Investigates cause-and-effect relationships.

What is a variable?

A quantity or quality that varies across people or situations.

What is a quantitative variable?

A quantity, such as height, measured by assigning a number to each individual.

What is a categorical variable?

A quality, such as sex, measured by assigning a category label to each individual.

What are the characteristics of Quantitative data (QT)?

Objective factual/not impacted by interpretation. Statistical Analysis. Nomothetic. Provide evidence.

What are the characteristics of Qualitative data (QL)?

Subjective description/impacted by interpretation. Thematic analysis. Idiographic. Provide explanations.

What is the purpose of experimental research?

Experiments are used to identify causal links between variables.

What is the independent variable (IV)?

The factor under investigation which is manipulated to create conditions.

What is the dependent variable (DV)?

The factor which is measured and is expected to change under the influence of the IV.

What does it mean to operationalise a variable?

Defining a variable in a way that you can measure that variable.

Why is it important to operationalise variables?

Enhances the reliability, replicability, and validity of the research.

What are biological/physiological measures of the DV?

Using instruments to measure aspects related to the DV.

What are self-report measures of the DV?

Participants provide responses based on predefined questions.

What is structured observation as a measure of the DV?

Systematic observation of behaviours, with specific behavioural categories.

What are tests and tasks as measures of the DV?

Objective tasks or tests used to assess aspects of behaviour or cognition.

In order to establish a causal relationship what must a researcher control?

Researchers must control all the other variables.

What are participant variables?

Individual differences between participants that could effect the DV.

What are situational variables?

Environmental or contextual factors that can influence participants' behaviour.

What is a controlled variable?

A factor or condition that is intentionally kept consistent throughout the experiment.

What are Extraneous Variables ?

• These are any variables other than the independent variable (IV) that might affect the dependent variable (DV).

What are uncontrolled variables?

A variable which either acts randomly affecting the DV in all levels of the IV systematically, i.e. on one level of the IV.

What are Confounding Variables?

A subset of extraneous variables that vary systematically with the IV and therefore provide an alternative explanation for the results.

Why is it important to control extraneous variables?

It can confound or obscure the true relationship between the independent and dependent variables

What do controls refer to?

Ensures that only the independent variable (IV)is affecting the dependent variable (DV).

What is the control condition?

A specific group or condition in the experiment that does not receive the treatment or manipulation applied to the experimental group.

What is the experimental condition/experimental group?

One or more of the situations in an experiment which represent different levels of the IV and are compared (or compared to a control condition)

What is the control group/control condition?

The group that is exposed to the same experimental environment but is not exposed to the independent variable . It provides a ‘base line’ for comparison with the experimental group.

What is the difference between Controls and Control condition?

Refer to variables or procedures that researchers implement to ensure that only the independent variable (IV)is affecting the dependent variable (DV).

What are levels of the independent variable (IV)?

Different conditions or values set by the researcher to examine its effects on the dependent variable

What is the process in Bandura et al is the Bobo Doll experiment?

Subjects exposed to either an aggressive or nonaggressive model

What is experimental design?

The way in which participants are allocated to levels of the IV.

What are the three kinds of experimental designs?

Independent measures, repeated measures, and matched pairs.

What happens in an Independent measures design?

Each participant does one level of the IV only

What happens in a Repeated measures design?

Each participant does each level of the IV

What happens in a Matched pairs design?

Participants are arranged into pairs. Each pair is similar ways that are important to the study and one member of each pair performs in a different level of the IV.

What is Random allocation in Independent measures design?

Participants are randomly allocated to either IV1 OR IV 2

What is Counter balancing in Repeated measures designs?

The sample is split into two groups, Group 1 does IV1 first then IV2, Group 2 does IV2 first then IV1

What solves the order effects in repeated measure design?

Randomisation, counterbalancing

Strength of Independent measures design?

It is good because the participants only encounter the experimental design setting once. They are therefore unlikely to respond due to demand characteristics. Also there are no order effects.

Weakness of Independent measures design?

Need more participants. One problem is that there might be individual differences between participants (participant variables) that might influence the findings

Strength of Repeated measures design?

The main advantage is that each person acts as their own baseline. Any difference between participants that could influence their performance and therefore the DV, will affect both levels of the IV in the same way. Individual differences (or participant variables) are therefore unlikely to bias the findings

Strength of Repeated measures design?

The main advantage is that each person acts as their own baseline. Any difference between participants that could influence their performance and therefore the DV, will affect both levels of the IV in the same way. Individual differences (or participant variables) are therefore unlikely to bias the findings

How does conterbalancing reduce order effects:

participants are divided into two groups, one group does the IV conditions in one order (IV1 then IV2) and the other does the IV conditions in the reverse of that order (IV2 then IV1)

What are order effects:

the effect of boredom, fatigue or learning (the practise effect) when participants go through different IV conditions in an order. Can effect validity in repeated measures design.

What is the closed ended questionnaire?

is a quantitative research method commonly used in surveys and questionnaires research

What kind of data the close or fixed ended questionnaire give?

Quantitative data allows for statistical analysis and comparisons

What kind of data the open - open ended questionnaire give ?

It ask questions that begin with why, what, how

In what case the questionnaire are Nomothetic?

Quantitative surveys

In what case the questionnaire are Idiographic?

Open or unstructured interview

What is a hypothesis?

A hypothesis is a testable statement or prediction about the relationship between two or more variables.

What are the characteristics of a good hypothesis?

A good hypothesis should be clear, testable, falsifiable, and based on existing knowledge.

What is the difference between a null hypothesis and an alternative hypothesis?

A null hypothesis states that there is no effect or relationship, while an alternative hypothesis suggests that there is an effect or relationship.

How is a hypothesis tested?

A hypothesis is tested through experimentation or observation, where data is collected and analyzed to support or refute the hypothesis.

What are longitudinal studies?

Longitudinal studies involve repeated observations of the same variables over long periods, allowing researchers to track changes over time.

What are the advantages of longitudinal studies?

Longitudinal studies can provide insights into the cause-and-effect relationship, observe developmental changes, and assess long-term outcomes.

What are the challenges associated with longitudinal studies?

Challenges include participant attrition, time-consuming processes, and potential changes in research conditions over time.

What are correlational studies?

Correlational studies assess the relationship between two or more variables to determine if they are associated without manipulating them.

What are the strengths of correlational studies?

Correlational studies can identify relationships between variables and can be conducted in natural settings, allowing for more generalizable results.

What are the limitations of correlational studies?

Correlational studies do not establish causation and can be affected by confounding variables, which may lead to misleading interpretations.

What are the aims of a study?

The aims of a study outline the primary objectives and questions the research is designed to answer.

How can aims impact the research design?

The aims of a study help determine the research methodology, including the type of data collected and the analyses performed.

What is the difference between a primary aim and a secondary aim?

A primary aim is the main objective of the research, while secondary aims are additional objectives that provide further insights.

What are sampling techniques?

Sampling techniques are methods used to select individuals from a population to participate in a study, including random, stratified, and convenience sampling.

What is random sampling?

Random sampling is a technique where every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected, reducing bias.

What is convenience sampling?

Convenience sampling involves selecting participants based on their availability, which can introduce biases but is often easier and faster to implement.

How are graphs used in research?

Graphs visually represent data, helping to illustrate trends, relationships, and comparisons among variables in research findings.

What type of graph is best for showing changes over time?

Line graphs are best for showing changes over time, as they connect data points with lines to illustrate trends.

What is the purpose of bar graphs in research?

Bar graphs are used to compare different groups or categories, allowing for easy visualization of differences in data.

What does evaluating research entail?

Evaluating research involves assessing the quality, reliability, validity, and significance of a study's findings and implications.

What are the criteria for evaluating the quality of research?

Criteria include the study's design, sample size, methodology, data analysis, consistency of findings, and relevance to the research question.

Why is it important to critique research findings?

Critiquing research findings helps identify limitations, biases, and areas for improvement, contributing to the development of better future studies.

What are qualitative research methods?

Qualitative research methods focus on understanding experiences, thoughts, or concepts through non-numerical data, often involving interviews or focus groups.

What are quantitative research methods?

Quantitative research methods involve the collection and analysis of numerical data to identify patterns, relationships, or to test hypotheses.

What is a mixed-methods approach?

A mixed-methods approach combines qualitative and quantitative research methods to provide a more comprehensive understanding of a research question.

What is experimental research?

Experimental research manipulates one or more variables to observe the effect on another variable, allowing researchers to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

What is a control group in experimental research?

A control group is a baseline group that does not receive the experimental treatment, allowing for comparison against the treatment group.

What is an independent variable?

An independent variable is the factor that is manipulated or changed in an experiment to observe its effect on the dependent variable.

What is a dependent variable?

A dependent variable is the outcome that is measured in an experiment, affected by changes in the independent variable.

What is the purpose of a literature review in research?

A literature review summarizes and evaluates existing research on a topic to identify gaps, inform the study's rationale, and provide context.

What is the significance of ethical considerations in research?

Ethical considerations ensure the protection of participants, promote integrity in research, and guide appropriate conduct throughout the research process.

What is informed consent?

Informed consent is a process where participants are fully informed about the nature of the research and provide voluntary agreement to participate.

How does random sampling work?

Random sampling involves selecting participants from a population in such a way that every individual has an equal chance of being chosen.

What is stratified sampling?

Stratified sampling divides a population into subgroups and randomly selects participants from each subgroup to ensure representation.

What is the role of surveys in research?

Surveys are tools used to collect data from respondents, often through questionnaires, to assess opinions, behaviors, or characteristics.

What is observational research?

Observational research involves watching and recording behaviors or events as they occur naturally, without interference from the researcher.

What is case study research?

Case study research focuses on an in-depth examination of a single instance or event to explore complex issues in real-life contexts.

What is reliability in research?

Reliability refers to the consistency of a measurement tool or research findings over time, ensuring similar results under similar conditions.

What is validity in research?

Validity assesses whether a research instrument measures what it is intended to measure, ensuring accurate and meaningful results.

What is a hypothesis?

A hypothesis is a testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables, guiding the research design and analysis.

What are confounding variables?

Confounding variables are extraneous factors that can influence the outcome of a study, potentially obscuring the true relationship between variables.

What is a pilot study?

A pilot study is a small-scale preliminary study conducted to test the feasibility, time, cost, and design of a research project.