Survival

What are some essential items to consider for a survival kit?

Lighter, metal match, waterproof matches.
• Snare wire.
• Signaling mirror.
• Wrist compass.
• Fish and snare line.
• Fishhooks.
• Candle.
• Small hand lens.
• Oxytetracycline tablets (diarrhea or infection).
• Water purification tablets.
• Solar blanket.
• Surgical blades.
• Butterfly sutures.
• Condoms for water storage.
• Chap Stick.
• Needle and thread.
• Knife.

What are basic items to have in every survival kit?

First aid items.
• Water purification tablets or drops.
• Fire starting equipment.
• Signaling items.
• Food procurement items.
• Shelter items.

What characteristcs should the survival kit case have?

Water repellent or waterproof.
• Easy to carry or attach to your body.
• Suitable to accept varisized components.
• Durable.

What are some considerations for use of a survival kit?

The environment is the key to the types of items you will need in your survival kit. How much equipment you put in your kit depends on how you will carry the kit. A kit carried on your body will have to be smaller than one carried in a vehicle. Always layer your survival kit, keeping the most important items on your body. For example, your map and compass should always be on your body. Carry less important items on your load-bearing equipment. Place bulky items in the rucksack.

Injury, Illness, or Death

Injury, illness, and death are real possibilities a survivor has to face. Perhaps nothing is more stressful than being alone in an unfamiliar environment where you could die from hostile action, an accident, or from eating something lethal. Illness and injury can also add to stress by limiting your ability to maneuver, get food and drink, find shelter, and defend yourself. Even if illness and injury don't lead to death, they add to stress through the pain and discomfort they generate. It is only by con-trolling the stress associated with the vulnerability to injury, illness, and death that a soldier can have the courage to take the risks associated with survival tasks.

What are the most common signs of excessive distress?

Difficulty making decisions.
• Angry outbursts.
• Forgetfulness.
• Low energy level.
• Constant worrying.
• Propensity for mistakes.
• Thoughts about death or suicide.
• Trouble getting along with others.
• Withdrawing from others.
• Hiding from responsibilities.

Do we have a need for stress? How does stress help us function?

We need stress because it has many positive benefits. Stress provides us with challenges; it gives us chances to learn about our values and strengths. Stress can show our ability to handle pressure without breaking; it tests our adaptability and flexibility; it can stimulate us to do our best.

Why is it beneficial to act like native peoples and animals in foreign environments?

The natives and animals of a region have adapted to their environment. To get a feel of the area, watch how the people go about their daily routine. When and what do they eat? When, where, and how do they get their food? When and where do they go for water? What time do they usually go to bed and get up? These actions are important to you when you are trying to avoid capture.

Why is it important to value living?

All of us were born kicking and fighting to live, but we have become used to the soft life. We have become creatures of comfort. We dislike inconveniences and discomforts. What happens when we are faced with a survival situation with its stresses, inconveniences, and discomforts? This is when the will to live- placing a high value on living-is vital.

Why is it important to know how to improvise?

Take a tool designed for a specific purpose and see how many other uses you can make of it. Learn to use natural objects around you for different needs. An example is using a rock for a hammer. No matter how complete a survival kit you have with you, it will run out or wear out after a while.

Why is it important to manage fear and panic in a survival situation?

The greatest enemies in a combat survival and evasion situation are fear and panic. If uncontrolled, they can destroy your ability to make an intelligent decision.

What are important locations to remember in a survival situation?

The location of enemy units and controlled areas.
• The location of friendly units and controlled areas.
• The location of local water sources (especially important in the desert).
• Areas that will provide good cover and concealment.

U -Use All Your Senses, Undue Haste Makes Waste

You may make a wrong move when you react quickly without thinking or planning. That move may result in your capture or death. Don't move just for the sake of taking action. Consider all aspects of your situation (size up your situation) before you make a decision and a move.

Why is it important to take inventory of your equipment in a survival situation?

Perhaps in the heat of battle, you lost or damaged some of your equipment. Check to see what equipment you have and what condition it is in. Now that you have sized up your situation, surroundings, physical condition, and equipment, you are ready to make your survival plan. In doing so, keep in mind your basic physical needs--water, food, and shelter.

Why is it important to examine your physical condition in a survival situation?

The pressure of the battle you were in or the trauma of being in a survival situation may have caused you to overlook wounds you received. Check your wounds and give yourself first aid. Take care to prevent further bodily harm. For instance, in any climate, drink plenty of water to prevent dehydration. If you are in a cold or wet climate, put on additional clothing to prevent hypothermia.

Why is it important to examine your environment in a survival situation?

Determine the pattern of the area. Get a feel for what is going on around you. Every environment, whether forest, jungle, or desert, has a rhythm or pattern. This rhythm or pattern includes animal and bird noises and movements and insect sounds. It may also include enemy traffic and civilian movements.

What are some considerations to make when finding shelter?

If you are in a combat situation, find a place where you can conceal yourself from the enemy. Remember, security takes priority. Use your senses of hearing, smell, and sight to get a feel for the battlefield. What is the enemy doing? Advancing? Holding in place Retreating? You will have to consider what is developing on the battlefield when you make your survival plan.

What is dehydration and how does it impact your health?

Dehydration results from inadequate replacement of lost body fluids. It decreases your efficiency and, if injured, increases your susceptibility to severe shock daily. Other factors, such as heat exposure, cold exposure, intense activity, high altitude, burns, or illness, can cause your body to lose more water. You must replace this water.

Is thirst a good indicator of how much water you need?

You replace the water as you lose it. Trying to make up a deficit is difficult in a survival situation, and thirst is not a sign of how much water you need.

How can you ensure adequate water intake over time?

Most people cannot comfortably drink more than 1 liter of water at a time. So, even when not thirsty, drink small amounts of water at regular intervals each hour to prevent dehydration.

In addition to water, what is lost as people become more dehydrated?

With the loss of water there is also a loss of electrolytes (body salts). The average diet can usually keep up with these losses but in an extreme situation or illness, additional sources need to be provided. A mixture of 0.25 teaspoon of salt to 1 liter of water will provide a concentration that the body tissues can readily absorb.

Of all the physical problems encountered in a survival situation, the loss of water is the most preventable. What are basic guidelines for the prevention of dehydration?

Always drink water when eating. Water is used and consumed as a part of the digestion process and can lead to dehydration.
• Acclimatize. The body performs more efficiently in extreme conditions when acclimatized.
• Conserve sweat not water. Limit sweat-producing activities but drink water.
• Ration water. Until you find a suitable source, ration your water sensibly. A daily intake of 500 cubic centimeter (0.5 liter) of a sugar-water mixture (2 teaspoons per liter) will suffice to prevent severe dehydration for at least a week, provided you keep water losses to a minimum by limiting activity and heat gain or loss.

How can you use the pulse and breathing rate to estimate fluid loss?

With a 0.75 liter loss the wrist pulse rate will be under 100 beats per minute and the breathing rate 12 to 20 breaths per minute. With a 0.75 to 1.5 liter loss the pulse rate will be 100 to 120 beats per minute and 20 to 30 breaths per minute. With a 1.5 to 2 liter loss the pulse rate will be 120 to 140 beats per minute and 30 to 40 breaths per minute. Vital signs above these rates require more advanced care.

Although you can live several weeks without food, you need an adequate amount to stay healthy. How does a lack of food impact your performance?

Without food your mental and physical capabilities will deteriorate rapidly, and you will become weak. Food replenishes the substances that your body burns and provides energy. It provides vitamins, minerals, salts, and other elements essential to good health. Possibly more important, it helps morale.

Calories are a measure of heat and potential energy. How many calories does the average person need to function?

The average person needs 2,000 calories per day to function at a minimum level. An adequate amount of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins without an adequate caloric intake will lead to starvation and cannibalism of the body's own tissue for energy.

How do plants provide you with energy?

Many plants provide enough protein to keep the body at normal efficiency. Although plants may not provide a balanced diet, they will sustain you even in the arctic, where meat's heat-producing qualities are normally essential.
Many plant foods such as nuts and seeds will give you enough protein and oils for normal efficiency. Roots, green vegetables, and plant food containing natural sugar will provide calories and carbohydrates that give the body natural energy.

What are better sources of nutrients than plants?

Meat is more nourishing than plant food. In fact, it may even be more readily available in some places. However, to get meat, you need to know the habits of, and how to capture, the various wildlife. To satisfy your immediate food needs, first seek the more abundant and more easily obtained wildlife, such as insects, crustaceans, mollusks, fish, and reptiles. These can satisfy your immediate hunger while you are preparing traps and snares for larger game.

What role does hygiene play in survival?

In any situation, cleanliness is an important factor in preventing infection and disease. It becomes even more important in a survival situation. Poor hygiene can reduce your chances of survival. A daily shower with hot water and soap is ideal, but you can stay clean without this luxury. Use a cloth and soapy water to wash yourself. Pay special attention to the feet, armpits, crotch, hands, and hair as these are prime areas for infestation and infection. If water is scarce, take an "air" bath.

Why should you keep your hands clean?

Germs on your hands can infect food and wounds. Wash your hands after handling any material that is likely to carry germs, after visiting the latrine, after caring for the sick, and before handling any food, food utensils, or drinking water. Keep your fingernails closely trimmed and clean, and keep your fingers out of your mouth.

Why should you keep your hair clean?

Your hair can become a haven for bacteria or fleas, lice, and other parasites. Keeping your hair clean, combed, and trimmed helps you avoid this danger.

Why should you keep your clothing clean?

Keep your clothing and bedding as clean as possible to reduce the chance of skin infection as well as to decrease the danger of parasitic infestation. Clean your outer clothing whenever it becomes soiled. Wear clean underclothing and socks each day. If water is scarce, "air" clean your clothing by shaking, airing, and sunning it for 2 hours. If you are using a sleeping bag, turn it inside out after each use, fluff it, and air it.

Why should you keep your mouth clean? How can you keep your mouth clean without a toothbrush and toothpaste?

Thoroughly clean your mouth and teeth with a toothbrush at least once each day. If you don't have a toothbrush, make a chewing stick. Find a twig about 20 centimeters long and 1 centimeter wide. Chew one end of the stick to separate the fibers. Now brush your teeth thoroughly. Another way is to wrap a clean strip of cloth around your fingers and rub your teeth with it to wipe away food particles. You can also brush your teeth with small amounts of sand, baking soda, salt, or soap.

Why should you take care of your feet?

To prevent serious foot problems, break in your shoes before wearing them on any mission. Wash and massage your feet daily. Trim your toenails straight across. Wear an insole and the proper size of dry socks. Powder and check your feet daily for blisters.

What should you do if you get a blister on your foot?

If you get a small blister, do not open it. An intact blister is safe from infection. Apply a padding material around the blister to relieve pressure and reduce friction. If the blister bursts, treat it as an open wound. Clean and dress it daily and pad around it. Leave large blisters intact.

To avoid having the blister burst or tear under pressure and cause a painful and open sore, what should you do?

Obtain a sewing-type needle and a clean or sterilized thread.
• Run the needle and thread through the blister after cleaning the blister.
• Detach the needle and leave both ends of the thread hanging out of the blister. The thread will absorb the liquid inside. This reduces the size of the hole and ensures that the hole does not close up.
• Pad around the blister.

Why is sufficient rest important for performance in a survival situation?

You need a certain amount of rest to keep going. Plan for regular rest periods of at least 10 minutes per hour during your daily activities. Learn to make yourself comfortable under less than ideal conditions. A change from mental to physical activity or vice versa can be refreshing when time or situation does not permit total relaxation.

What are pressure points?

A pressure point is a location where the main artery to the wound lies near the surface of the skin or where the artery passes directly over a bony prominence (Figure 4-3). You can use digital pressure on a pressure point to slow arterial bleeding until the application of a pressure dressing. Pressure point control is not as effective for controlling bleeding as direct pressure exerted on the wound. It is rare when a single major compressible artery supplies a damaged vessel.

What can proper shelter do for you?

A shelter can protect you from the sun, insects, wind, rain, snow, hot or cold, and observation. It can give you a feeling of well-being. It can help you maintain your will to survive.

In some areas, your need for shelter may take precedence over your need for food and possibly even your need for water. What are situations where shelter takes precedence over things like this?

For example, prolonged exposure to cold can cause excessive fatigue and weakness (exhaustion). An exhausted person may develop a "passive" outlook, thereby losing the will to survive.

What is the most common error in making a shelter?

is to make it too large. A shelter must be large enough to protect you. It must also be small enough to contain your body heat, especially in cold climates.

What are two requirements for shelter?

It must contain material to make the type of shelter you need. It must be large enough and level enough for you to lie down comfortably.

In many situations, security and concealment is paramount for shelter. How does this influence the creation of shelter sites?

Provides concealment from enemy observation.
• Has camouflaged escape routes.
• Is suitable for signaling, if necessary.
• Provides protection against wild animals and rocks and dead trees that might fall.
• Is free from insects, reptiles, and poisonous plants.

What are some problems that could occur near your shelter site?

Avoid flash flood areas in foothills.
• Avoid avalanche or rockslide areas in mountainous terrain.
• Avoid sites near bodies of water that are below the high water mark.

When considering shelter site selection, use the word BLISS as a guide. What is BLISS?

B - Blend in with the surroundings.
L - Low silhouette.
I - Irregular shape.
S - Small.
S - Secluded location.

What determines the type of shelter you need?

How much time and effort you need to build the shelter.
• If the shelter will adequately protect you from the elements (sun, wind, rain, snow).
• If you have the tools to build it. If not, can you make improvised tools?
• If you have the type and amount of materials needed to build it.

If you plan to use the lean-to for more than one night, or if you expect rain, what should you do?

Make a center support for the lean-to. Another method is to place a stick upright under the center of the lean-to. This method, however, will restrict your space and movements in the shelter. To reduce heat loss to the ground, place some type of insulating material, such as leaves or pine needles, inside your lean-to. When at rest, you lose as much as 80 percent of your body heat to the ground.

To increase your security from enemy observation, lower the lean-to's silhouette by making two changes. What are these changes?

First, secure the support lines to the trees at knee height (not at waist height) using two knee-high sticks in the two center grommets (sides of lean-to). Second, angle the poncho to the ground, securing it with sharpened sticks, as above.

A tent (Figure 5-2) provides a low silhouette. It also protects you from the elements on two sides. What are some disadvantages of the tent?

It has, however, less usable space and observation area than a lean-to, decreasing your reaction time to enemy detection.

To make this tent, what supplies do you need?

you need a poncho, two 1.5- to 2.5-meter ropes, six sharpened sticks about 30 centimeters long, and two trees 2 to 3 meters apart.

How do you make a tent?

Tie off the poncho hood in the same way as the poncho lean-to. Tie a 1.5- to 2.5-meter rope to the center grommet on each side of the poncho. Tie the other ends of these ropes at about knee height to two trees 2 to 3 meters apart and stretch the poncho tight. Draw one side of the poncho tight and secure it to the ground pushing sharpened sticks through the grommets. Follow the same procedure on the other side.

If you have a parachute and three poles and the tactical situation allows, what can you make?
What other supplies will you need?

Parachute tepee.
You need a 14-gore section (normally) of canopy, stakes, a stout center pole, and inner core and needle to construct this tepee. You cut the suspension lines except for 40- to 45-centimeter lengths at the canopy's lower lateral band.

How do you make this tepee?

Select a shelter site and scribe a circle about 4 meters in diameter on the ground.
• Stake the parachute material to the ground using the lines remaining at the lower lateral band.
• After deciding where to place the shelter door, emplace a stake and tie the first line (from the lower lateral band) securely to it.
• Stretch the parachute material taut to the next line, emplace a stake on the scribed line, and tie the line to it.
• Continue the staking process until you have tied all the lines.
• Loosely attach the top of the parachute material to the center pole with a suspension line you previously cut and, through trial and error, determine the point at which the parachute material will be pulled tight once the center pole is upright.
• Then securely attach the material to the pole.
• Using a suspension line (or inner core), sew the end gores together leaving 1 or 1.2 meters for a door.

You use the same materials, except for the center pole, as for the one-pole parachute tepee. How can you make this teepee?

Tie a line to the top of parachute material with a previously cut suspension line.
• Throw the line over a tree limb, and tie it to the tree trunk.
• Starting at the opposite side from the door, emplace a stake on the scribed 3.5- to 4.3-meter circle.
• Tie the first line on the lower lateral band.
• Continue emplacing the stakes and tying the lines to them.
• After staking down the material, unfasten the line tied to the tree trunk, tighten the tepee material by pulling on this line, and tie it securely to the tree trunk.

A one-man shelter you can easily make using a parachute requires a tree and three poles. One pole should be about 4.5 meters long and the other two about 3 meters long. How do you make this shelter?

Secure the 4.5-meter pole to the tree at about waist height.
• Lay the two 3-meter poles on the ground on either side of and in the same direction as the 4.5- meter pole.
• Lay the folded canopy over the 4.5 meter pole so that about the same amount of material hangs on both sides.
• Tuck the excess material under the 3-meter poles, and spread it on the ground inside to serve as a floor.
• Stake down or put a spreader between the two 3-meter poles at the shelter's entrance so they will not slide inward.
• Use any excess material to cover the entrance.

Water is one of your most urgent needs in a survival situation. How much water do you need everyday to maintain efficiency?

You can' t live long without it, especially in hot areas where you lose water rapidly through perspiration. Even in cold areas, you need a minimum of 2 liters of water each day to maintain efficiency.

More than three-fourths of your body is composed of fluids. How does your body lose this water and why must you replace it?

Your body loses fluid as a result of heat, cold, stress, and exertion. To function effectively, you must replace the fluid your body loses. So, one of your first goals is to obtain an adequate supply of water.

If you do not have a canteen, a cup, a can, or other type of container, how can you create a water container?

Improvise one from plastic or water-resistant cloth. Shape the plastic or cloth into a bowl by pleating it. Use pins or other suitable items--even your hands--to hold the pleats.

How can you procure fresh water from condensation?

Heavy dew can provide water. Tie rags or tufts of fine grass around your ankles and walk through dew- covered grass before sunrise. As the rags or grass tufts absorb the dew, wring the water into a container. Repeat the process until you have a supply of water or until the dew is gone. Australian natives sometimes mop up as much as a liter an hour this way.

What can the presence of insects and animals tell you about nearby water sources?

Bees or ants going into a hole in a tree may point to a water-filled hole. Siphon the water with plastic tubing or scoop it up with an improvised dipper.
You can also stuff cloth in the hole to absorb the water and then wring it from the cloth.

Where can water be found within plants?

Water sometimes gathers in tree crotches or rock crevices. Use the above procedures to get the water. In arid areas, bird droppings around a crack in the rocks may indicate water in or near the crack. Green bamboo thickets are an excellent source of fresh water. Water from green bamboo is clear and odorless. To get the water, bend a green bamboo stalk, tie it down, and cut off the top (Figure 6-3). The water will drip freely during the night. Old, cracked bamboo may contain water.

How can you get water from plantain trees?

Wherever you find banana or plantain trees, you can get water. Cut down the tree, leaving about a 30- centimeter stump, and scoop out the center of the stump so that the hollow is bowl-shaped. Water from the roots will immediately start to fill the hollow. The first three fillings of water will be bitter, but succeeding fillings will be palatable.

The milk from green (unripe) coconuts is a good thirst quencher. What is something you should consider when drinking coconut water?

The milk from mature coconuts contains an oil that acts as a laxative.

How can you get water from plants with moist pulpy centers?

Cut off a section of the plant and squeeze or smash the pulp so that the moisture runs out. Catch the liquid in a container.

You can use stills in various areas of the world. They draw moisture from the ground and from plant material. How long does it take for stills to procure water?

You need certain materials to build a still, and you need time to let it collect the water. It takes about 24 hours to get 0.5 to 1 liter of water.

What do you need make an above ground still?

you need a sunny slope on which to place the still, a clear plastic bag, green leafy vegetation, and a small rock.

How do you make an above ground still?

Fill the bag with air by turning the opening into the breeze or by "scooping" air into the bag. Fill the plastic bag half to three-fourths full of green leafy vegetation. Be sure to remove all hard sticks or sharp spines that might puncture the bag.

What equipment do you need in order to create a below ground still? Where should you place your still?

To make a belowground still, you need a digging tool, a container, a clear plastic sheet, a drinking tube, and a rock Select a site where you believe the soil will contain moisture (such as a dry stream bed or a low spot where rainwater has collected). The soil at this site should be easy to dig, and sunlight must hit the site most of the day.

How do you make a below ground still?

• Dig a bowl-shaped hole about 1 meter across and 60 centimeters deep.
• Dig a sump in the center of the hole. The sump's depth and perimeter will depend on the size of the container that you have to place in it. The bottom of the sump should allow the container to stand upright.
• Anchor the tubing to the container's bottom by forming a loose overhand knot in the tubing.
• Place the container upright in the sump.
• Extend the unanchored end of the tubing up, over, and beyond the lip of the hole.
• Place the plastic sheet over the hole, covering its edges with soil to hold it in place.
• Place a rock in the center of the plastic sheet.
• Lower the plastic sheet into the hole until it is about 40 centimeters below ground level. It now forms an inverted cone with the rock at its apex. Make sure that the cone's apex is directly over your container. Also make sure the plastic cone does not touch the sides of the hole because the earth will absorb the condensed water.
• Put more soil on the edges of the plastic to hold it securely in place and to prevent the loss of moisture.
• Plug the tube when not in use so that the moisture will not evaporate.

How do you collect water from a water still?

You can drink water without disturbing the still by using the tube as a straw.
You may want to use plants in the hole as a moisture source. If so, dig out additional soil from the sides of the hole to form a slope on which to place the plants.

Should water you collect be purified?

Rainwater collected in clean containers or in plants is usually safe for drinking. However, purify water from lakes, ponds, swamps, springs, or streams, especially the water near human settlements or in the
tropics.

When possible, purify all water you got from vegetation or from the ground by using iodine or chlorine, or by boiling. What are some methods for purifying water?

• Using water purification tablets. (Follow the directions provided.)
• Placing 5 drops of 2 percent tincture of iodine in a canteen full of clear water. If the canteen is full of cloudy or cold water, use 10 drops. (Let the canteen of water stand for 30 minutes before drinking.)
• Boiling water for 1 minute at sea level, adding 1 minute for each additional 300 meters above sea level, or boil for 10 minutes no matter where you are.

By drinking nonpotable water you may contract diseases or swallow organisms that can harm you. What are some examples of such diseases?

Dysentery.
Cholera and typhoid.
Flukes.
Leeches.

If the water you find is also muddy, stagnant, and foul smelling, you can clear the water. How do you do so?

By placing it in a container and letting it stand for 12 hours. By pouring it through a filtering system. These procedures only clear the water and make it more palatable. You will have to purify it.

How do you make a filtering system?

To make a filtering system, place several centimeters or layers of filtering material such as sand, crushed rock, charcoal, or cloth in bamboo, a hollow log, or an article of clothing Remove the odor from water by adding charcoal from your fire. Let the water stand for 45 minutes before drinking it.

Fire can cause problems, as well.

The enemy can detect the smoke and light it produces. It can cause forest fires or destroy essential equipment. Fire can also cause burns carbon monoxide poisoning when used in shelters.

What can fire do for you in a survival scenario?

In many survival situations, the ability to start a fire can make the difference between living and dying. Fire can fulfill many needs. It can provide warmth and comfort. It not only cooks and preserves food, it also provides warmth in the form of heated food that saves calories our body normally uses to produce body heat.
You can use fire to purify water, sterilize bandages, signal for rescue, and provide protection from animals. It can be a psychological boost by providing peace of mind and companionship. You can also use fire
to produce tools and weapons.

Understanding the concept of the fire triangle is very important in correctly constructing and maintaining a fire. What does the fire triangle represent?

The three sides of the triangle represent air, heat, and fuel. If you remove any of these, the fire will go out. The correct ratio of these components is very important for a fire to burn at its greatest capability. The only way to learn this ratio is to practice.

What role does fuel play in fire?

Fuel (in a nongaseous state) does not burn directly. When you apply heat to a fuel, it produces a gas. This gas, combined with oxygen in the air, burns.

You will have to decide what site and arrangement to use. Before building a fire what should you consider?

• The area (terrain and climate) in which you are operating.
• The materials and tools available.
• Time: how much time you have?
• Need: why you need a fire?
• Security: how close is the enemy?
Look for a dry spot that
• Is protected from the wind.
• Is suitably placed in relation to your shelter (if any).
• Will concentrate the heat in the direction you desire.

How do you make an underground fireplace?

• Dig a hole in the ground.
• On the upwind side of this hole, poke or dig a large connecting hole for ventilation.
• Build your fire in the hole as illustrated.

What is Tinder?

Dry material that ignites with little heat--a spark starts a fire. The tinder must be absolutely dry to be sure just a spark will ignite it. If you only have a device that generates sparks, charred cloth will be almost essential. It holds a spark for long periods, allowing you to put tinder on the hot area to generate a small flame. You can make charred cloth by heating cotton cloth until it turns black, but does not burn. Once it is black, you must keep it in an airtight container to keep it dry. Prepare this cloth well in advance of any survival situation. Add it to your individual survival kit.

What is Kindling?

Readily combustible material that you add to the burning tinder. Again, this material should be absolutely dry to ensure rapid burning. Kindling increases the fire's temperature so that it will ignite less combustible material.

What is Fuel?

Less combustible material that burns slowly and steadily once ignited.

How do you make a lean to fire?

To lay this fire (Figure 7-5), push a green stick into the ground at a 30-degree angle. Point the end of the stick in the direction of the wind. Place some tinder deep under this lean-to stick. Lean pieces of kindling against the lean-to stick. Light the tinder. As the kindling catches fire from the tinder, add more kindling.

How do you make a cross ditch fire?

To use this method (Figure 7-5), scratch a cross about 30 centimeters in size in the ground. Dig the cross 7.5 centimeters deep. Put a large wad of tinder in the middle of the cross. Build a kindling pyramid above the tinder. The shallow ditch allows air to sweep under the tinder to provide a draft.

How do you make a pyramid fire?

To lay this fire (Figure 7-5), place two small logs or branches parallel on the ground. Place a solid layer of small logs across the parallel logs. Add three or four more layers of logs or branches, each layer smaller than and at a right angle to the layer below it. Make a starter fire on top of the pyramid. As the starter fire burns, it will ignite the logs below it. This gives you a fire that burns downward, requiring no attention during the night. There are several other ways to lay a fire that are quite effective. Your situation and the material available in the area may make another method more suitable.

What should you consider when using matches in your survival kit?

Make sure these matches are waterproof. Also, store them in a waterproof container along with a dependable striker pad.

How can you use a convex lens to start a fire?

Use this method (Figure 7-6) only on bright, sunny days. The lens can come from binoculars, camera, telescopic sights, or magnifying glasses. Angle the lens to concentrate the sun's rays on the tinder. Hold the lens over the same spot until the tinder begins to smolder. Gently blow or fan the tinder into flame, and apply it to the fire lay.

How can you use metal matches to start a fire?

Place a flat, dry leaf under your tinder with a portion exposed. Place the tip of the metal match on the dry leaf, holding the metal match in one hand and a knife in the other. Scrape your knife against the metal match to produce sparks. The sparks will hit the tinder. When the tinder starts to smolder, proceed as above.

How can you use batteries to start a fire?

Use a battery to generate a spark. Use of this method depends on the type of battery available. Attach a wire to each terminal. Touch the ends of the bare wires together next to the tinder so the sparks will ignite it.

How can you use gunpowder to start a fire?

Often, you will have ammunition with your equipment. If so, carefully extract the bullet from the shell casing, and use the gunpowder as tinder. A spark will ignite the powder. Be extremely careful when extracting the bullet from the case.

How can you use flint and steel to start a fire?

The direct spark method is the easiest of the primitive methods to use. The flint and steel method is the most reliable of the direct spark methods. Strike a flint or other hard, sharp-edged rock edge with a piece of carbon steel (stainless steel will not produce a good spark). This method requires a loose-jointed wrist and practice. When a spark has caught in the tinder, blow on it. The spark will spread and burst into flames.

What is the fire-plow method for starting fires?

The fire-plow (Figure 7-7) is a friction method of ignition. You rub a hardwood shaft against a softer wood base. To use this method, cut a straight groove in the base and plow the blunt tip of the shaft up and down the groove. The plowing action of the shaft pushes out small particles of wood fibers. Then, as you apply more pressure on each stroke, the friction ignites the wood particles.

After water, what is considered man's most important priority?

Finding food.
In contemplating virtually any hypothetical survival situation, the mind immediately turns to thoughts of food. Unless the situation occurs in an arid environment, even water, which is more important to maintaining body functions, will almost always follow food in our initial thoughts. The survivor must remember that the three essentials of survival--water, food, and shelter--are prioritized according to the estimate of the actual situation.

What is a good strategy for getting food sources from animals?

Unless you have the chance to take large game, concentrate your efforts on the smaller animals, due to their abundance. The smaller animal species are also easier to prepare. You must not know all the animal species that are suitable as food. Relatively few are poisonous, and they make a smaller list to remember.

When you are in a survival situation, why is important to be able to eat foods you aren't used to eating?

You can, with relatively few exceptions, eat anything that crawls, swims, walks, or flies. The first obstacle is overcoming your natural aversion to a particular food source. Historically, people in starvation situations have resorted to eating everything imaginable for nourishment. A person who ignores an
otherwise healthy food source due to a personal bias, or because he feels it is unappetizing, is risking his own survival.

What role do insects play in food procurement?

The most abundant life-form on earth, insects are easily caught. Insects provide 65 to 80 percent protein compared to 20 percent for beef. This fact makes insects an important, if not overly appetizing, food source. Insects to avoid include all adults that sting or bite, hairy or brightly colored insects, and caterpillars and insects that have a pungent odor. Also avoid spiders and common disease carriers such as ticks, flies, and mosquitoes.

Where are good locations for finding insects?

Rotting logs lying on the ground are excellent places to look for a variety of insects including ants, termites, beetles, and grubs, which are beetle larvae. Do not overlook insect nests on or in the ground. Grassy areas, such as fields, are good areas to search because the insects are easily seen.

Are worms a good food source?

Worms (Annelidea) are an excellent protein source. Dig for them in damp humus soil or watch for them on the ground after a rain. After capturing them, drop them into clean, potable water for a few minutes. The worms will naturally purge or wash themselves out, after which you can eat them raw.

Are shrimp good sources of food? How can you catch shrimp in the wild?

Freshwater shrimp range in size from 0.25 centimeter up to 2.5 centimeters.
They can form rather large colonies in mats of floating algae or in mud bottoms of ponds and lakes.