Memory Processes and Theories: Encoding, Storage, Retrieval & Models

Encoding

Turning sensory input into a form that can be stored in memory.

Storage

Maintaining information in memory over time.

Retrieval

Recovering information from memory when needed.

Prospective Memory

Remembering to perform future actions, like "don't forget to buy milk."

Retrospective Memory

Remembering past events or previously learned information.

Atkinson & Shiffrin Model

Three-part system: Sensory → Short-Term → Long-Term memory.

Sensory Memory

Holds sensory input for about ½-2 seconds (iconic = visual, echoic = auditory).

Short-Term Memory (STM)

Holds information for 10-30 seconds; limited capacity (~7 ± 2 items).

Working Memory

A mental workspace used to manipulate and process current information.

George Miller's Magical Number

7 ± 2 = limit of STM capacity for unfamiliar information.

Chunking

Grouping information into meaningful units to increase STM capacity.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeating information to keep it active in STM.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Linking new info with existing knowledge for deeper encoding.

Levels of Processing Theory

Deeper (semantic) processing leads to better long-term retention.

Dual-Coding Theory (Paivio)

Using both verbal and visual codes enhances memory.

Mnemonics

Memory aids or strategies (e.g., acronyms, rhymes) that improve recall.

Schemas

Organized clusters of knowledge; help encode consistent info but distort inconsistent info.

Semantic Network

Linked concepts where activation of one spreads to related ones.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Unlimited capacity store that can last a lifetime.

Consolidation

Process of transferring info from STM to LTM; strengthened by sleep.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

Repeated activation strengthens neural connections; "neurons that fire together wire together."

Reconsolidation

Reactivated memories are re-stored, allowing for updating or distortion.

Hippocampus

Critical for forming new explicit (declarative) memories.

Amygdala

Involved in emotional memory.

Cerebellum & Basal Ganglia

Involved in procedural memory.

Explicit (Declarative) Memory

Conscious recall of facts and events; includes semantic and episodic memory.

Implicit (Nondeclarative) Memory

Unconscious memory for skills, habits, and conditioning.

Semantic Memory

General knowledge not tied to time or place (e.g., "Paris is in France").

Episodic Memory

Personal experiences tied to specific times and places.

Procedural Memory

Memory for motor skills and habits (e.g., riding a bike).

Priming

Subtle activation of related concepts that influences later behavior.

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories after an injury (H.M.'s case).

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of memories from before an injury.

Patient H.M.

Had hippocampi removed; could not form new explicit memories but retained implicit skills.

Flashbulb Memories

Vivid, emotional memories of major events; may feel accurate but often aren't.

Recall

Retrieving information without cues (e.g., essay question).

Recognition

Identifying correct information from options (e.g., multiple choice).

Retrieval Cue

Stimulus that triggers recall (e.g., smell, song, note).

Encoding Specificity Principle

Recall improves when cues match the original learning context.

State-Dependent Memory

Better recall when internal state (mood, intoxication, etc.) matches learning state.

Blocking

Temporary inability to access stored info; "tip-of-the-tongue" phenomenon.

Absentmindedness

Forgetting caused by lack of attention or shallow encoding.

Transience

Memory fades over time; forgetting curve (Ebbinghaus).

Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve

Shows rapid initial forgetting that levels off with time.

Proactive Interference

Old info interferes with learning new info.

Retroactive Interference

New info interferes with remembering old info.

Source Monitoring

Trying to identify the origin of a memory.

Source Amnesia (Cryptomnesia)

Remembering information but forgetting its source.

Suggestibility

Memory distortion due to misleading information or questions.

Reconstruction

Memory is not a perfect recording—it's rebuilt from fragments and can be distorted.

Persistence

Unwanted, intrusive memories (e.g., PTSD).

Improving Memory Tip #1

Use deeper processing and elaboration—connect new material to what you already know.

Improving Memory Tip #2

Use visual imagery and dual coding (words + pictures).

Improving Memory Tip #3

Study in multiple sessions; spaced practice > cramming.

Improving Memory Tip #4

Test yourself often—retrieval strengthens memory.

Improving Memory Tip #5

Get adequate sleep to support consolidation.