PSYC145 Exam #2

Social Psychology terms for the second exam.

self-concept

The overall set of beliefs that people have about their personal attributes

independent view of the self

a way of defining oneself in terms of one’s own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions, and not in terms of the thoughts, feelings, and actions of other people

interdependent view of the self

a way of defining oneself in terms of one’s relationship to other people, recognizing that one’s behavior is often determined by the thoughts, feeling, and actions of others

introspection

the process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives

self-awareness theory

the idea that when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behavior to their internal standards and values

causal theories

theories about the causes of one’s own feelings and behaviors; often we learn such theories from our culture (e.g., “absence makes the heart grow fonder”)

self-perception theory

The theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs

two-factor theory of emotion

The idea that emotional experience is the result of a two-step self-perception process in which people first experience physiological arousal and then seek an appropriate explanation for it

misattribution of arousal

The process whereby people make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do

intrinsic motivation

The desire to engage in an activity because we enjoy it or find it interesting, not because of external rewards or pressures

extrinsic motivation

the desire to engage in an activity because of external rewards or pressures, not because we enjoy the task or find it intersting

overjustification effect

the tendency for people to view their behaviors as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, making them underestimate the extent to which it was caused by intrinsic reasons

task-contingent rewards

rewards that are given for performing a task, regardless of how well the task is done

performance-contingent rewards

rewards that are based on how well we perform a task

fixed mindset

the idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change

growth mindset

the idea that achievement is the result of working hard, trying new strategies, and seeking input from others

social comparison theory

the idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people

upward social comparison

comparing ourselves to people who are better than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability

downward social comparison

comparing ourselves to people who are worse than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability

self-control

the ability to subdue immediate desires to achieve long-term goals

implementation intentions

people’s specific plans about where, when, and how they will fulfill a goal and avoid tempations

impression management

the attempt by people to get others to see them as they want to be seen

ingratiation

the process whereby people flatter, praise, and generally try to make themselves likable to another person, often of higher status

self-handicapping

the strategy whereby people create obstacles and excuses for themselves so that if they do poorly on a task, they can avoid blaming themselves

cognitive dissonance

the discomfort that people feel when two cognitions (beliefs, attitudes) conflict, or when they behave in ways that are inconsistent with their conception of themselves

postdecision dissonance

dissonance aroused after making a decision, typically reduced by enhancing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and devaluating the rejected alternatives

justification of effort

The tendency for individuals to increase their liking for something hey have worked hard to attain

external justification

explaining a counterattitudinal behavior as due to something about the situation or environment

internal justification

the reduction of dissonance by changing something about oneself (e.g., one’s attitude or behavior)

counterattitudinal advocacy

acting in a way that runs counter to one’s private beliefs

Ben Franklin Effect

The idea that people like someone more after doing a favor for them. A possible explanation is cognitive dissonance

insufficient punishment

the dissonance aroused when individuals lack sufficient external justification for having resisted a desired activity or object, usually resulting in individuals evaluating the forbidden activity or object

hypocrisy induction

the arousal of dissonance by having individuals make statements that run counter to their behaviors and then reminding them of the inconsistency between what they advocated and their behavior; the purpose is to lead individuals to more responsible behavior

self-affirmation theory

the idea that people can reduce threats to their self-esteem by affirmation themselves in areas unrelated to the source of the threat

self-evaluation maintenance theory

the idea that people experience dissonance when someone close to use outperforms us in an area that is central to our self-esteem. This dissonance can be reduced by becoming less close to the person, changing our behavior so that we now outperform them, or deciding that the are is not that important to us after all

narcissism

the combination of excessive self-love and a lack of empathy toward otrhers

terror management theory

the theory that self-esteem serves as a buffer, protecting people from terrifying thoughts about their own mortality

cognitively based attitude

an attitude based primarily on people’s beliefs about the properties of an attitude object

affectively based attitude

an attitude based more on people’s feelings and values than on their beliefs about the nature of an attitude object

classical conditioning

the phenomenon whereby a stimulus that elicits an emotional response is repeatedly paired with a neutral stimulus that does not, until the neutral stimulus takes on the emotional properties of the first stimulus

operant conditioning

the phenomenon whereby behaviors we freely choose to perform become more or less frequent, depending on whether they are followed by a reward or punishment

behaviorally based attitude

an attitude based on observations of how one behaves towards an object

self-perception theory

the theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs

explicit attitudes

attitudes that we consciously endorse and can easily report

implicit attitudes

attitudes that exist outside of conscious awareness

persuasive communication

a message advocating a particular side of an issue

Yale attitude change approach

the study of the conditions under which people are most likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages, focusing on the source of the communication, the nature of the communication, and the nature of the audience

elaboration likelihood model

a model explaining two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change: centrally, when people are motivated and have the ability to pay attention to the arguments in the communication, and peripherally, when people do not pay attention to the arguments but are instead swayed by surface characteristics

central route to persuasion

when people have both the ability and the motivation to elaborate on a persuasive communication, listening carefully to and thinking about the arguments presented

peripheral route to persuasion

when people do not elaborate on the arguments in a persuasive communication but are instead swayed by more superficial cues

fear-arousing communications

persuasive message that attempts to change people’s attitudes by arousing their fears

heuristic-systematic model of persuasion

an explanation of the two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change: either systematically processing the merits of the arguments or using mental shortcuts or heuristics

attitude inoculation

making people immune to attempts to change their attitudes by initially exposing them to small doses of the arguments against their postion

reactance theory

the idea that when people their freedom to perform a certain behavior is threatened, an unpleasant state of resistance is aroused, which they can reduce by performing the prohibited behavior

attitude accessibility

the strength of the association between an attitude object and a person’s evaluation of that object, measure by the speed with which people can report how they feel about the object

theory of planned behavior

the idea that people’s intentions are the best predictors of their deliberate behaviors, which are determined by their attitudes towards specific behaviors, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control

subliminal messages

words or pictures that are not consciously perceived but may nevertheless influence judgments, attitudes, and behaviors

conformity

a change in one’s behavior due to the real or imagined influence of other people

informational social influence

relying on other people as a source of information to guide our behavior, which leads to conformity because we believe that others’ interpretation of an ambiguous situation is correct

private acceptance

conforming to other people’s behavior out of genuine belief that what they are doing or saying is right

public compliance

conforming to other people’s behavior publicly without necessarily believing in what the other people are doing or saying

social norms

the implicit or explicit rules a group has for the acceptable behaviors, values, and beliefs of its members

normative social influence

going along with that other people do to be liked and accepted by them, which leads to public conformity with the group’s beliefs and behaviors but not always private acceptance of them

social impact theory

the idea that conforming to social influences depends on the groups importance, its immediacy, and the number of people in the group

idiosyncrasy credits

the tolerance a person earns, over time, by conforming to group norms; if enough credits are earned, the person can, on occasion, deviate from the group without retribution

minority influence

the case where a minority of group members influences the behavior or beliefs of the majority

injunctive norms

people’s perceptions of what behaviors are approved or disapproved of by others

descriptive norms

people’s perceptions of how people actually behave in given situations, regardless of whether the behavior is approved or disapproved of by others

foot-in-the-door technique

social influence strategy in which getting people to agree first to a small request makes them more likely to agree later to a second, larger request

door-in-the-face technique

social influence strategy in which first asking people for a large request that they will probably refuse makes them more likely to agree later to a second, smaller request

propaganda

a deliberate, systematic attempt to advance a cause by manipulating mass attitudes and behaviors, often through misleading or emotionally charged information

obedience

a change in one’s behavior due to the direct influence of an authority figure