ETHICS

Cosmocentrism

Cosmocentrism

It is a Philosophical view where truth and meanings are centered to the Universe. ( Ancient Philosophical Area)

Theocentrism

A Philosophical view of the world in which the center of all things is God. Everything can be explained by God. (Medieval Philosophy)

Anthropocentrism

A Philosophical view that the Truth and Meanings are centered on Man itself/Human Reason.(Modern Philosophy)

Etiquette, Game and House Rules, Aesthetic standards

What are the examples of Non Moral Standards?

FALSE ! (Philosophy is NOT light reading, something you relax with in the evening, after all the serious work of the day is done.)

Philosophy is light reading, something you relax with in the evening, after all the serious work of the day is done. (TRUE or FALSE)

FALSE. (ONLY HUMAN beings can be a MORAL AGENT)

All of people can be a Moral Agent, examples are Infants and Mentally ill person ( TRUE or FALSE)

Structural Dilemma

a level of dilemma where resolving or deciding a decision that involves different sectors and institution could affect various sectors of the society.

TRUE

Philosophy searches for the ultimate reasons, causes, and principles of beings. (TRUE or FALSE)

Organizational Dilemma

This level of Dilemma takes group or organization of people for the decision to be made.

Because e culture may impose its own cultural standard on others, which may result in a clash in cultural values and beliefs. When this happens, as we may already know, violence and crime may ensue, such as religious violence and ethnic cleansing.

Why Distinguish Moral vs Non Moral Standard?

FREEDOM

This is the Foundation of Morality

Taking complex cultural issues as simple and homogenous ones.

Cultural Reductionism means?

Personal Dilemma

This level of Dilemma requires yourself only to make a decision.

Reason - is the basis or motive for an action, decision, or conviction. Moral Judgement requires backing up by reason.
Impartiality - is a principle of justice holding that decisions ought to be based on objective criteria, rather than on the basis of bias, prejudice.

What are the minimum requirement in Morality, define

Moral Standards

It normally promote "the good", that is, the welfare and well-being of humans, animals, and the environment.

Only Human Beings are rational, self conscious & autonomous
Only Human Beings can act morally & immorally
Only Human Beings are part of the community

Only Human Beings can be Ethical, why?

1. Moral standards involve serious wrongs or significant benefits.
2. Moral standards are not established or changed by the decisions of authoritative individuals or bodies.
3. Moral standards ought to be preferred to other values
4. Moral standards the trait of universality
5. Moral standards are based on impartial consideration (
6. Moral standards are associated with special emotions and vocabulary

Give the 6 Characteristics of Moral Standards, explain mo sa sarili mo.

Non Moral Standards

This refers to standards by which we judge what is good or bad and right or wrong in a non-moral way. Doesnt affect your well being at all, are matters of taste or preference

FALSE. ( Culture is learned through SOCIALIZATION)

Culture is learned through Isolation (TRUE or FALSE)

ETHICAL/MORAL DILEMMA

are situation in which a difficult choice has to be made between two courses of action, either of which entails transgressing a moral principle. At the very least, a moral dilemma involves conflicts between moral requirements.

THOMAS HOBBES

Lahat ng tao ay masama kung walang authority.

JOHN LOCKE

likas na mabuti

NURTURE THEORY

Ang pagiging mabuti o masama ay natutunan or can be learned.

SOCIAL NORMS

refers to values, beliefs, attitudes, and/or behaviors shared by a group of people.
And yung culture ito yung influence of individual actions.

"PATRICIA LICUANA"

CULTURE- is something shared, learned, dynamic or nagbabago

Social Convention Theory

-By convention, they mean those things agreed upon by people like through their authorities. Convention also refer to the usual or customary ways through which things are done within a group.
-Moral standards are merely human inventions
-As a theory, moral law is a social convention which human beings had just made up for themselves and might have been different had they liked.

SOCIAL CONDITIONING THEORY

-Moral conscience or the feeling that we are obliged to at morally is nothing but an outcome of social conditioning

-ACTS→ society disapproves → aware of the weight of reproof → dissatisfaction→ develop into a habit → function as a CONSCIENCE

-C.S Lewis explains why morality is not just a social convention

-It is the intellect (REASON) which can be molded or socially conditioned, not the sense of moral nor the so called conscience perse

The Challenge of Cultural Relativism

James Rachels & Stuart Rachels

Cultural Relativism

The idea of universal truth in ethics in myth
The customs of different societies are all that exist.
To say that a custom is 'correct' or 'incorrect' would imply that we can judge that custom by some independent standard of right and wrong, but no such standard exists

Cultural relativists claim the following:

1. Different societies have different moral codes.
2. The moral code of a society determines what is right or wrong within that society.
3. There are no moral truths that hold for all people at all times.
4. The moral code of our own society has no special status; it is but one among many.
5. It is arrogant for us to judge other cultures. We should always be tolerant of them.
6. There is no objective standard that can be used to judge one society's code better than others.

Consistent claims?
What if the norms of a society favor intolerance?

Given that cultural relativists take pride in their tolerance, it would be ironic if their theory actually supported the intolerance of warlike societies.

The Cultural Differences Arguments

Different cultures have different moral codes. \ Therefore, there is no objective 'truth' in morality. Right and wrong are only matters of opinion, and opinions vary from culture to culture.

This is NOT a sound argument. The conclusion does not follow from the premise. If The premise concerns what people believe, while the conclusion concerns what really is the case.

What We Can Learn from Cultural Relativism

Cultural relativism rightly warns us about the danger of assuming that all our preferences are based on some absolute rational standard.
Cultural relativism has us keep an open mind regarding the practices of both our culture and the cultures of other societies.
These are important points, but we can accept them without accepting the whole theory.

What Follows If Cultural Relativism Is True?

We could no longer honestly say that the customs of other societies are morally inferior to our own.

We could no longer justifiably criticize the code of our own society.

The idea of moral progress is called into doubt.

Why There Is Less Disagreement Than It Seems

-The difference is in our belief systems, not in our values.

-We cannot conclude that, because our customs differ, our values differ.

-The difference in customs may be due to something else.

KOHLBERG'S MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Pre-conventional level
Stage 1: obedience and punishment
Stage 2: individualism and exchange
CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
Stage 3: interpersonal relationship and conformity
Consider society Relationship kineme
Stage 4: MAINTAINING SOCIAL ORDER
POST CONVENTIONAL LEVEL - (adult 25yrs)
Stage 5: SOCIAL CONTRACT ORIENTATION
Government, abusive
Stage 6: universal ethical principle
May paninindigan at may prinsipyo.
Holding to your principle.

Pre-conventional level

Stage 1: obedience and punishment
Stage 2: individualism and exchange

CONVENTIONAL LEVEL

Stage 3: interpersonal relationship and conformity
Stage 4: MAINTAINING SOCIAL ORDER

POST CONVENTIONAL LEVEL - (adult 25yrs)

Stage 5: SOCIAL CONTRACT ORIENTATION
Stage 6: universal ethical principle

Stage 3: interpersonal relationship and conformity

Consider society Relationship kineme

Stage 1: obedience and punishment

base of moral on the possible punishment.
Afraid of negative consequences, injury, loss, damage.

Stage 2: individualism and exchange

consider the reason for benefits, rewards or positive outcomes of that particular action.

Stage 5: social contract

Government, abusive

Stage 6: universal ethical principle

May paninindigan at may prinsipyo.
Holding to your principle.

Human Acts

- The Free voluntary acts of Man. Acts with knowledge and consent. Human acts are those which man is master, which he has power of doing as he pleases. Must be done willfully, knowingly and freely. Without will or consent. Knowledge and freedom, there's no Human Act.

Will

- Strongest desire among the various desires present. Faculty of mind which it chooses at the moment of making decision.

Acts of Man

- Instinctive and are not within the control of Man. They are not willfully done, knowingly done and freely.

Example: acts performed under serious physical violence such as hostage obliged to do an evil action.

ELICITED HUMAN ACTS

Performed by the will and are not bodily externalized. Ex: Paul Glenn1. Wish 2. Intention 3. Consent 4. Election 5. Use 6. Fruition(satisfaction, nang akwa ku keni?)

COMMANDED HUMAN ACTS

Done by man's mental or bodily powers under the command of the will. (Commanded acts are either internal or external actions)

Internal Actions

- Conscious Reasoning, Recalling something, encouraging oneself

External Actions

- Walking, Eating, Dancing, Laughing

Combined External and Internal Actions

- Listening, studying, reading, driving a car, writing a letter.

THE ACT AS KNOWINGLY DONE

-you should be sure that you know what you are doing. To will something, one has to know beforehand. When a person chooses to act according what he know, he acts freely.

IGNORANCE

MODIFIER of KNOWLEDGE

IGNORANCE

-it is the absence of knowledge which a person ought to possess.

"Ignorance of the law excuses no one"

VINCIBLE IGNORANCE

- ignorance that can be easily reminded through ordinary diligence and reasonable efforts. Eto yung pwede pang ma remedyohan sis, pede magawan ng paraan agad.

Ex: may pupuntahan kang bahay pero di mo alam, pwede ka mag google map, o di kaya mag tanong sa mga tao dun, diba problem solb.

INVINCIBLE IGNORANCE

Ignorance type sya na which a person without being aware of it or having awareness of it, lacks the means to rectify it.Eto nmn completely no knowledge, mahirap gawan ng paraan basta ganon.

Ex: May nawawalang tao or bagay invincible yan. O kaya yung Chef di nya alam na may sira palng ingredients na nasali sa nniluluto nya.

AFFECTED IGNORANCE

Keep positive efforts in order to escape responsibility.
Yung peg nito parang ano Tanga-tangahan teh. Panggap

Ex: May sinend na Memo about sa pag gawa ng certain work ganyan, pero di mo binasa intentionally, kaya nung sinabihan ka, ang rason mo ay DI MO NABASA yung MEMO.

Invincible Ignorance

A person cannot be held morally liable if he is not aware of his state of ignorance. ( Di pwedeng kasuhan ng murder yung Waiter kung di alam ng waiter na may poison pala yung siniserve nyang food)

Vincible Ignorance

In terms naman dito, nababawasan lang yung accountability nung tao dahil sa act na nangyari. A person becomes aware of the state of ignorance he is in and has the MORAL OBLIGATION to rectify it by exercising reasonable diligence in seeking the needed information.

Ex: May suspetsa na yung waiter na may poison yung food na i s serve nya(may motal obligation na sya na alamin kung may lason nga ba OR abisuhan yung customer kung san nya i s serve yung food about sa suspetsa nya)

Affected Ignorance

- It increases the accountability nung tao duon sa resultant act. Kase Refusing to rectify ignorance implies malice.

Reason & Impartiality

-Moral judgement must be backed by good reasons.-Morality requires the impartial consideration of each individual's interest.

Moral Reasoning

-We cannot rely on our feelings, no matter how powerful they might be.
-Our decisions must be guided as much as possible by reason.

Reason

-The basis or motive for an action, decision or conviction.

How can we tell if an argument is really good?

Get the facts straight. Bring moral principles into play. Are they justified and are they being correctly applied.

The requirement of Impartiality

-Each individual's interest are equally important, and not one should get special treatment. - If there is no good reason for treating people differently, then discrimination is unacceptable arbitrary.

The minimum Conception of Morality

- Morality is to do what there are the best reasons for doing while giving equal weight to the interest of each individual affected by one's decision.

How do we make moral/ethical decisions?

1-Gather the Facts - Write down information
2-Determine ethical issues -
3-Determine virtues - ano nga ba yung mga nag c clash
4-List the alternatives - ano mga pwedeng ibang gawin
5-Compare alternatives - mag shortlist
6-Consider the consequences - marami bang makikinabang, you weight the cause, look for positive or negative. Choose an alternative that will give less negative outcomes.
7-Make a decision

WILL

- refers to that faculty of the mind which chooses, at the moment of making a decision, the strongest desire from among the various desires present.

MODIFIERS OF WILL

Passion or Concupiscence
HABIT

Passion or Concupiscence

- Psychic responses
- Positive emotions (tendencies towards desirable objects) or Negative emotions (tendencies away from undesirable or harmful things)
- They are neither moral nor immoral.

KINDS OF PASSIONS

1. ANTECEDENT PASSION
2. CONSEQUENT PASSION

ANTECEDENT PASSION

It may happen that a person is emotionally aroused to perform an act.
are those that precede an act or predisposed a person to act.
Principle: Antecedent passions do not always destroy voluntariness but they diminish accountability for the resultant act. Antecedent passions weaken the will power of a person without, however, completely obstructing his freedom.

CONSEQUENT PASSION

are those intentionally aroused and kept.
Consequent passions therefore are said to be voluntary in cause, the result of the will playing the strings of emotions.
Principle: Consequent passion does not lessen voluntariness, it may even increase accountability. This is because consequent passions are direct results of the will which fully consent to them instead of subordinating them to its control.

PRIMO PRIMI ACTS

- biglaan, no time to think for plan, on the spot sya

Feelings as Instinctive Responses

- Ethics is also a matter of emotion; moral judgments at their best should be emotional; feelings are deemed as instinctive and trained responses to moral dilemmas.
- Ethical judgments are highly emotional as people emotionally express strong approval or disapproval of different acts.

HABIT

- is a lasting readiness and faculty, born of frequently repeated acts, for acting in a certain manner. Habits are acquired inclinations towards something to be done. They assume the role of a second nature, moving one who has them to perform acts with relative ease.
Principle:
Action done by force of habit are voluntary in cause, unless a reasonable effort is made to counteract the habitual inclination, Habits are either good or bad.
Habits are voluntary because they are the result of previously willed acts done repeatedly as a matter of fact. Therefore for as long as the habit is not corrected, evil actions done by force of habit are voluntary and accountable.
When a person decides to fight his habit, and for as long as the effort towards this purpose continues, actions resulting from such habit may be regarded as acts of man and not accountable.

Feelings as obstacles to Making the Right Decisions

- Feelings/Emotions can become obstacles or impediments to becoming ethical. Especially when feeling's roles in ethics are misinterpreted or exaggerated.

ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM

- Ethical subjectivism is a meta-ethical theory, it holds that the truth or falsity of ethical propositions is dependent on the feelings, attitude, or standards of a person or group of persons
- Subjectivists hold that there is no such thing as objective right or real wrong.

EMOTIVISM

- Emotivism is an improved version of Subjectivism.
- actually the most popular form of non-cognitivism.
- It is based on Logical Positivism that states that all truth claims must be empirically verifiable.
- It denies moral truth and knowledge, because of the absence of scientific or empirical evidence.
- Moral judgments are not statements of fact but are mere expressions of the emotions of the speaker, especially

FAULTS OF EMOTIVISM

1. It suggests that in ethical disputes, we can only appeal to emotion, not reason. This situation can bring about anarchy.
2. It is against deliberate discussions about ethical differences.
3. It fails to distinguish moral judgements from expressions of personal preferences.
4. Personal taste does not require to be supported by reason. Moral statements require backing by reasons. In the absence of sensible rationale, they are merely capricious and ignorable.
5. The theory reduced morality to mere matters of feelings without reasons. The fact is moral truths are truths of reasons.

Ways to Control Your Emotion and Make Better Decisions

1. Pause and assess the situation. Give your brain enough time to evaluate the current situation so you can make the right choice.
2. Don't always rely on your gut. Intuition, more commonly known as "gut feeling", is one of our most basic instincts. It helps us identify cues in the environment so we avoid danger and survive.
3. Put it in writing. You're not going to feel better right away - however, keeping notes about your day is a tried-and tested form of therapy. It's free, it gives you some alone time, and you can review your thoughts later for more clarity.
4. Narrow your options. Narrowing your selection will not only save you a lot of stress, science says you'll be happier with the choice you've made, too!
5. Ask the majority. One of the best tricks to choosing the right decision - especially if it involves big risks - is to ask for a second opinion.
6. Avoid burnout. Get some rest. Not only will you feel refreshed after waking up, your mind will be clearer to pick a better option.

Morality

foundation is FREEDOM

FREEDOM

control of the will
proceeds from will and from intellect

Only HUMAN ACTS

are subjected to morality or have moral significance.
Human acts are acts that are KNOWINGLY, WILLFULLY, and FREELY done.

WHEN IS AN ACT FREELY DONE?

1. UNDER THE CONTROL OF THE WILL - it is the power tending toward, choosing, adhering to and taking pleasure in a GOOD KNOWN BY THE INTELLECT - voluntary.
2. We do things because we want to, we own the decision or the action.
3. We face the consequence of our actions/decision - we face it with full responsibility.

NATURE OF FREEDOM

Proceeds from the intellect and will.
Based on the reason which will follow.
When man makes decisions, he is free.
Man is accountable for what he is doing because he is CONSCIOUS of what he is doing, why he is doing it and how he is doing it.

MODIFIER OF FREEDOM

Fear and Violence

ACTS DONE WITH FEAR

- Acts done with fear are voluntary. A person acting with fear is acting despite his fear and is in full control of himself.
Dangerous na talaga sya, infom kana
Voluntary
Example magaadventure ka pero alam mong too danger to take risk, nasayo pa rin ang desisyon anoba

ACTS DONE OUT OF/ BECAUSE OF FEAR

- Acts done out of fear, however great, are simply voluntary although are conditionally voluntary.
- It is also conditionally involuntary because, if it were not for the presence of something feared, the person would not act or would act in another way.
- In short, ginagawa natin yung isang bagay kasi may kinatatakutan tayo, or dahil takot tayo sa kung anong mangyayari.
Example: Sasaktan ka namin kapag di mo ginawa

MODIFIER OF FREEDOM: VIOLENCE

refers to any physical force exerted on a person by another free agent for the purpose of compelling said person to act against his will. Bodily torture, maltreatment, isolation, and mutilation are examples of violence against the person.

IMPERFECT VIOLENCE

The victim offers insufficient resistance para mapataboy nya yung tao na yon
less voluntary, and so the moral responsibility is lessened but not taken away completely.
Difference is when victims give complete resistance, the violence is perfect tas kapag insufficient resistance eto ay imperfect.

PERFECT VIOLENCE

where the victim gives complete resistance.
entirely involuntary, and so in such cases there is no moral responsibility ( Reasonable force, kapag napaalis mo sya successfully)
Example: May girl na naglalakad sa dilim then may nag attack sakanya and nag attempt mag fight back with the use of her physical power.

MORAL COURAGE

doing the right thing even at the risk of inconvenience, ridicule, punishment, loss of job or security or social status.
Shield to disapproval of other person

ARTHUR SCHOPENHAUER

- "Will is the innermost essence, the kernel, of every particular thing and also in the deliberate conduct of man."
- He believed that will is primary and uses knowledge in order to find an object that will satisfy its craving.

WILL POWER

inner strength to make a decision, take action, and handle and execute any aim or task until it is accomplished, regardless of inner and outer resistance, discomfort or difficulties.
It bestows the ability to overcome laziness, temptations and negative habits, and to carry out actions, even if they require effort, are unpleasant and tedious or are contrary to one's habit.
Own personal inhibition

Developing Will and Moral Courage

1. Develop and Practice Self-discipline
focus all energy on a moral goal and persevere until it is accomplished
involves rejection of instant gratification in favor of something better
2. Do mental strength training
Saying no to useless, harmful or unnecessary desires and deed, and behaving contrary to one's (bad) habits, fortify a person's mindset.
"no internet for a day or two"
3. Draw inspiration from people of great courage
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Mahatma Gandhi, Jesus and his apostles
4. Repeatedly do acts that exhibit moral courage and will
help someone
stand up against bullies
initiative to do chores/assignments
5. Avoid deeds that show lack of moral courage and will
involves acts that show irresponsibility, cowardice, apathy, rashness, imprudence, ill will and wickedness.
"walking away from someone in need"
"laughing at someone's misfortune"