AP Psych: Unit 1

Heredity

Heredity

The passing on of physical or mental characteristics genetically from one generation to another

Nature

What we think of as pre-wiring and is influenced by genetic inheritance and other biological factors

Nurture

Generally taken as the influence of external factors after conception

Life experience, learning, exposure, etc.

Genetic Predisposition

An increased chance or likelihood of developing a particular disease based on the presence of one or more genetic variants and/ or a family history suggestive of an increased risk of the disease

Evolutionary Psychology

The branch of psychology that studies the mental adaptations of humans to a changing environment

Natural Selection

Certain behaviors and genes best for survival (Survival of the Fittest)

Behaviors such as stranger anxiety, parental love, phobias can all be explained by natural selection

If a person is out going, he or she might make friends an allied and rhese connections could improve the individual's chances of survival, which increases the person's chances of passing this trait for extroversion down to his or her kids

Identical Twins

Twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

Have similar personality and intelligence levels

Fraternal Twins

Twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but share a fetal environment

Eugenics

The study of how to arrange reproduction within a human population to increase the occurrence of heritable characteristics regarded as desirable

Epigenetics

The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

Twin Studies

Studies conducted on identical or fraternal twins. They aim to reveal the importance of environmental and genetic influences for traits, phenotypes, and disorders

Adoption Studies

Typically compare pairs or persons e.g., adopted child and adoptive mother or adopted child and biological mother, to assess genetic and environmental influences on behavior

Family Studies

Provide a way for professionals to further examine the relationship between genetics and mental disorders

Behavioral Genetics

Focuses on discovering how genes and experiences interact and lead to specific behaviors and mental abilities

Genes

Segments of DNA that contain instructions to make proteins- building blocks of life

Genome

The entirety of that individual's hereditary information

Mutations

A permanent change in an organism's genetic material

Nervous System

The body's electrochemical communications network

Central Nervous System

The brain and spinal cord which distribute and process messages

Peripheral Nervous System

A branch of the human nervous system that includes all components except the brain and spinal cord

Somatic Nervous System

The part of the peripheral sustem that controls voluntary movements

Autonomic Nervous System

The part of the peripheral system that regulates bodily processes such as breathing, heart rate, and digestion

Sympathetic Nervous System

Branch of the autonomic nervous system that excites the body by preparing it for action (increased heart beat, pupils dilate, lunch increase oxygen, relax bladder, etc.) FIGHT OR FLIGHT

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Branch of the autonomic nervous system that restor the body's energy sources once they have been depleted (pupils constrict, heart beat slows, constrict airways, stomach contract, etc.) REST AND DIGEST

Nerves

Bundles of fibers that transmit impulses between different areas within our bodies

Reflex

An involuntary response to a stimulus that happens without concious thought

Neurons

Individual nerve cells that make up our entire nervous system

Glial Cells

Provide nutrition and protection for the neurons

Sensory Neurons

Neurons that take information from the senses to the brain

Motor Neurons

Neurons that take information from the brain to the rest of the body

Interneurons

In the brain or spinal cord, neurons that take messages and send them elsewhere in the brain or spinal cord

Spinal Reflex

An immediate response to external stimuli directed at the level of the spinal cord

Mirror Neurons

Neurons that play a role in action understanding, imitation learning, and language processing.

Enables us to recreate and embody the intentions of others

Action Potential

An impulse or brief electric charge that travels down the axon

Threshold

The level of stimulation needed to trigger a neural impulse

All or None Response

A neuron either sends an impulse or it does not

Resting Potential

When a neuron does not have an action potential

Polarized

The state of a resting neuron; the outside of the membrane is positively charged while the inside of the membrane is negatively charged

Depolarization

Describes an axon that is firing. Postive ions enter the axon, and cause other positive ions to move into the axon in the form of a neural impulse down the axon

Refractory Period

A resting pause, where neurons pump positively charged sodium ions back outside of the cell

Reuptake

The reabsorption of neurotransmitters by the sending neuron

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Send signals that stimulate the brain

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Send signals to calm the brain down and create balance

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

The loss of muscle control resulting feom a deterioration of myelin sheath

Myasthenia Gravis (MG)

A relatively rare acquired autoimmune disorder caused by an antibody-mediated blockade of neuromuscular transmission resulting in skeletal muscle weakness and rapid muscle fatigue (cause by a blockage of acetylcholine)

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons that generate the next neural impulse. Growth and development, tissue function, sexual function, reproduction, sleep, mood, etc.

Hormone

A chemical messenger produced in the bady that controls and regulates activity of certain cells or organs (released in the bloodstream)

Adrenaline

A hormone that activates the sympathetic nervous system. This triggers our “fight or flight” response which increases heart rate, dilates the pupil, increases blood flow to skeletal muscle, and reduces digestive and reproductive activity

Melatonin

A hormone known to regulate sleep and wake cycles

Ghrelin

Increases hunger, secreted by an empty stomach

Leptin

Decreases hunger, protein hormone secreted by fat cells

Oxytocin

A hormone produced by the hypothalamus and released by the pituitary gland rhat plays a significant role in social bonding, sexual reproduction, childbirth, and the period after childbirth

Psychoactive Drugs

Chemical substances that alter perceptions, mood, or behavior

Addiction

Craving for a chemical substance despite its adverse effects

Tolerance

After long-term use the brain then produces less of that neurotransmitter- this creates a need for increasing amounts of the drug to experience the same effect

Withdrawal

Set of symptoms associated with discontinuing a drug- reverses neuro-adaptation

Substance Abuse Disorder

Continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk

Depressants

Lower neural activity and slow body functioning

Alcohol

Depressant that slows neural processing and thinking and impairs physical activity

Opiates

Depressant drugs that reduce neurotransmission and temporarily lessen pain and anxiety

Barbiturates

Depressant drug

Stimulants

Drugs that speed up the body’s functions

Ex. caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, meth, amphetamines

Agonists

Chemicals that activate the receptors for certain neurotransmitters and make the effects of the neurotransmitters stronger

Antagonists

Chemicals that inhibit the actions of neurotransmitters

Reuptake inhibitors

Drugs that prevent the axon terminals from engaging in the reuptake of neurotransmitters

Brainstem

Connects the brain to the spinal cord. Regulates messages between them. Controls automatic functions: breathing, swallowing, heart rate, blood pressure, and consciousness

When damaged vital funtion such as breathing heart rate and consciousness would be compromised

Thalamus

The brain's sensory control center. Relays information from the eyes, ears, and skin to other parts of the brain for processing

When damaged it could cause sensory disturbances such as altered perception of pain temperature touch and movement

Reticular Activating System

A neeve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus. Filters info and plays an important role in controlling arousal, consciousness, motivation, and pain management

When damaged causes disruptions in arousal sleep-wake cycles and attention

Medulla Oblongata

Controls many vital automatic funtions such as heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure

When damaged affects basic bodily functions like breathing heart rate blood pressure and swallowing

Cerebellum

“Little brain”

Helps control posture, balance, and the coordination of voluntary movements. Processes sensory input, coordinates movement and balance, enables nonverbal learning and memory.

When damaged results in problems with coordination balance fine motor control and cognitive functioning

Hypothalamus

Regulates the autonomic nervous system, body temperature, hunger, heart rate, emotions, and circadian rhythms. Also controls the pituitary gland by secreting hormones. Fight or flight.

When damaged can lead to difficulties regulating temperature and emotions, can disrupt the circadian rhythm and can affect growth and weight

Amygdala

The center of emotion and is responsible for fear and agression. Activated during fight or flight response. Process emotion and survival responses

When damaged can lead to difficulties in processing emotions particularly fear and aggression and can affect emotional memory

Hippocampus

Plays a critical role in the formation organization and storage of new memories as well as connecting certain sensations and emotions to these memories

When damaged can lead to difficulties with spatial navigation and forming new memories

Corpus Callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

The brains “super highway”

When damaged can lead to issues with communication between the brains hemispheres, affecting integration of sensory motor and cognitive functions

Pituitary Gland

Controls other glands and makes the hormones that trigger growth

Regulates stress growth and reproduction influencing hormone release from orher enocrine glands

The “master control gland”

When damaged can disrupt hormone regulation affecting various bodily functions such as growth metabolism and reproduction

Pineal Gland

Secretes a hormone called melatonin which regulates sleep and body rhythms

When damaged can disrupt circadian rhythms and melatonin production impacting sleep patterns and possibly mood regulation

Limbic System

Neural system (includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

Hemishpere

The brain has two hemispheres, the left and the right. The left controls the right side of the body and the right controls the left side of the body.

Left Hemisphere

Specializes in language, speech, handwriting, calculation, and sense of time and rhythm

Right Hemisphere

Specializes in processing involving perception, visualization, and recognition of faces and emotions

Cerebral Cortex

The outer layer of tissue of the hemispheres, and subcortical structure.

Frontal Lobe

Portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements

Prefrontal Cortex

Located at the very front of the frontal lobe, it controls executive functions or a set of abilities that are needed to control cognitive behaviors. These behaviors include attention, inhibition, working memory, problem-solving, and planning

Broca’s Area

Located in the left hemisphere in the frontal lobe. This area is responsible for speech production and language comprehension. Damage to this can result in Broca’s aphasia.

Parietal Lobe

Portion of the cerebral cortex; recieves sensory input for touch and body position

Occipital Lobe

Portion of the cerebral cortex; includes areas that recieve information from thethe visual fields, contains the visual cortex

Temporal Lobe

Portion of the cerebral cortex; includes the auditory areas and helps with hearing and helps with hearing and meaningful speech, containing the primary auditory cortex

Wernickie’s Area

Located in thr back of the temporal lobe near the occipital lobe of the left cerebral hemisphere and is involved in understanding written and spoken language. Damage to this area is called Wernickie’s Aphasia.

Motor Cortex

An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

Sensory Cortex

Area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

Association Areas

Areas in the cerebral cortex involved in higher mental function

Contralateral Hemispheric Organization

Organization The arrangnement whereby the motor cortex of each cerebral hemisphere is mainly responsible for control of movements of the contralateral (opposite) side of the body

Split Brain

A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

Left Hemisphere

Controls right hand, spoken language, written language, mathematical and logical thought processes, analysis, and reading

Right Hemisphere

Controls left hand, nonverbal (visual) perception. Is responsible for musical and artistic processing, and emotional thought

Neuroplasticity

Reorganization of neural pathways as a result of fexperience.

When a hemisphere is removed from a young child, that child developes what would otherwisebe lateralized skills in the remaining hemisphere.

Brain Lesion

Lesions are tissue that is destroyed (disease, Traumatic Brain Injuries, drug abuse, etc.)

We can analyze brain lesions and determine what was destroyed and the resulting changes in behavior viorviorviorviorviorvior

EEG

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

fMRI

A technique for revealing blood flow, and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. These scans show brain function as well as its structure.

Conciousness

Our awareness of ourselves and our environment