Exam 1 Review BIOL 2404

anatomy

study of body structure

physiology

study of body function

how are anatomy and physiology related?

structure determines function

levels of organization in the human body

- subatomic particles

- atom

- molecule

- macromolecules

- organelle

- cell

- tissue

- organ

- organ system

- organism

subatomic particles

protons, neutrons, and electrons that make up cells

atom

tiny particles that make up chemicals (hydrogen, carbon)

molecule

particles consisting of atoms joined together (water, glucose)

macromolecule

large particles consisting of molecules (DNA, protein)

organelle

functional part of a cell (mitochondrion, lysosome)

cell

basic unit of structure and functions (muscle, nerve, or blood cell)

tissue

layer or mass of cells with specific function (adipose or epithelial tissue)

organ

group of different tissues with a function (heart, kidney, stomach)

organ system

group of organs with common function (digestive system)

organism

composed of interacting organ systems (human)

major characteristics of life

- growth

- reproduction

- responsiveness

- movement

- metabolism

- respiration

- digestion

- circulation

- excretion

growth

increase in cell number and size and increase in body size

reproduction

production of new cells and organisms

responsiveness

reaction to a change inside or outside of the body

movement

change in body position or location; motion of internal organs

metabolism

the sum of all chemical reactions in a living system: energy production and nutrient cycling

respiration

- making energy

- most organisms do it by taking in oxygen and giving off carbon dioxide

digestion

breaking down food into usable nutrients for absorption into the blood

circulation

moving chemicals and cells through the body fluids

excretion

removing waste products

examples of metabolism

- photosynthesis

- cellular respiration

- digestion

- protein synthesis

homeostasis

maintenance of a stable internal environment

three parts of homeostasis mechanism

- receptor: detects and provides information about the stimuli

- control center: decision-maker that maintains the set point

- effector: muscle or gland that responds to the control center, and causes the necessary change in the internal environment

positive feedback mechanisms

- an increasing or amplifying change of a condition

-- example: blood clotting, uterine contractions of childbirth

negative feedback mechanisms

- most common type of homeostatic mechanism

- refers to a dampening or reversal of a condition

-- example: body temperature, blood pressure, and glucose level in the blood

major body cavities

- cranial cavity: houses brain

- vertebral canal (spinal cavity): contains spinal cord

- thoracic cavity: houses lungs and thoracic viscera

- abdominopelvic cavity: contains abdominal and pelvic viscera

membranes associated with thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities

serous membrane: secrete serous fluid (slippery fluid that prevents friction between layers)

- two layers: visceral layer (inner layer, which covers organ); parietal layer (outer layer, which lines wall of cavity)

-- examples: visceral and parietal pleura (around lungs in thorax); visceral and parietal pericardium (around heart in thorax); visceral and parietal peritoneum (around abdominopelvic organs)

organ systems

- integumentary

- skeletal

- muscular

- nervous

- endocrine

- cardiovascular

- lymphatic

- respiratory

- digestive

- urinary

- reproductive

integumentary system

- body covering

- protection

- body temperature regulation

- sensory reception

- production of Vitamin D

skeletal system

- support and movement

- framework

- protection

- attachment sites

- storage of inorganic salts

- production of blood cells

muscular system

- support and movement

- main source of body heat

- of posture

nervous system

- integration and coordination of organ function through nerve impulses and neurotransmitters

- rapid short-term effects

endocrine system

- integration and coordination of organ function through chemical messengers called hormones

- slower, longer-lasting effects

cardiovascular system

- transportation of gases, nutrients, blood, hormones and wastes

lymphatic system

- transportation of fluids from tissue spaces to blood

- carries fats from digestive system to blood

- defends body against infection

digestive system

- receives food

- breaks down food

- absorbs digestion products

- excrete waste

respiratory sytem

- moves air in and out of the body

- exchange gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between blood and air

- absorbs oxygen

urinary system

- removes blood wastes

- regulates electrolyte/water balance and blood pressure

- produces urine and excretes it by transporting it to outside of body

reproductive system

- male and female systems produce and transport sex cells, produce hormones, and produce new like organisms

- female also provides for fetal development and childbirth

anatomical position

- standing erect

- facing forward

- upper limbs at the sides

- palms facing forward

superior

above

inferior

below

anterior or ventral

toward the front

posterior or dorsal

toward the back

medial

toward the midline

lateral

away from midline

bilateral

paired structures; on both side

Ipsilateral

same side

contralateral

opposite side

proximal

close to the point of attachment to trunk

distal

farther from the trunk of the body

superficial

close to body surface

deep

more internal

sagittal section

longitudinal cut that divides body into left and right portions

mid-sagittal/ median section

divides body into equal left and right portions

parasagittal section

sagittal section lateral to midline; divides body into unequal left and right portions

transverse or horizontal section

divides the body into superior and inferior portions

coronal or frontal section

longitudinal cut that divides body into anterior and posterior portions

abdominal quadrants

- right upper quadrant

- left upper quadrant

- right lower quadrant

- left lower quadrant

abdominal regions

- epigastric: upper middle portion

- hypochondriac: on right and left sides of epigastric region

- umbilical: central portion

- lateral (lumbar): on right and left sides of umbilical region

- pubic (hypogastric): lower middle portion

- inguinal (iliac): on right and left sides of pubic region.

axial region

- abdominal is belly

- axillary is armpit

- cephalic or cranial is head

- cervical is neck

- facial is face

- inguinal is groin

- pelvic is lower trunk

- thoracic is chest

- umbilical is navel

appendicular region

- brachial is arm

- carpal is wrist

- cubital is elbow

- femoral is thigh

- palmar is palms of hands

- patellar is knee

- plantar is soles of feet

- tarsal is ankle

matter

anything that takes up space and has mass

atoms

smallest unit of matter

compounds

molecules that contain more than one element

how atomic structure determines how atoms interact

the atomic structure, especially the number and arrangement of valence electrons, determines how an atom interacts by controlling whether it gains, lose, or shares electrons to form bonds

compare and contrast an isotope with a neutral element

an isotope has the same protons as a neutral atom but differs in the number of neutrons while having a neutral element is defined by having equal protons and electrons with no charge

compare and contrast an ion with a neutral element

a neutral element has equal protons and neutrons with no charge, while an ion has unequal protons and electrons, giving it a positive or negative charge

explain how molecular and structural formulas symbolize the composition of compounds

molecular formulas show the kinds and numbers of atoms in a compound, while structural formulas also show how those atoms are connected and arranged

types of bondings between atoms

- ionic: transfer, forms ions, metal and nonmetal

- covalent: share, forms molecules, nonmetal and nonmetal

difference between polar and non polar covalent bonds

- polar covalent bonds: unequal sharing, partial charges --> water-soluble, stronger intermolecular forces

- non polar covalent bonds: equal sharing, no charge separation --> low solubility in water

the differences among acids, bases and salts

acids releases H+ ions, bases releases OH- ions, and salts are neutral compounds formed when acids and bases react

pH scale

measurement system used to indicate the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in solution; ranges from 0 to 14

- acids have pH of less than 7

- neutral pH of 7

- bases have pH more than 7

inorganic substances

- water: major component of body fluids; important role in transporting chemicals in body

- oxygen (O2); used by organelles to release energy from nutrients; necessary for survival

- carbon dioxide (CO2): waste product released during metabolic reactions

- inorganic salts: abundant in body fluids; play important role in metabolism, help control H2O concentration, pH, blood clotting, nerve and muscle processes

main classes of organic molecules

- carbohydrates: main source of cellular energy

- lipids: used for cellular energy

- proteins: energy source, hormones, receptors, enzyme and antibodies

- nucleic acids: carry genetic code (DNA) or aid in protein synthesis (RNA)

example of carbohydrates

sugars and starches

example of lipids

triglycerides, fats and steroids

example of proteins

enzymes

example of nucleic acids

DNA and RNA

how cells differ from one another

function, structure, gene expression, and organelles

general characteristics of a composite cell

- nucleus: contains genetic material, directs cell activties

- cytoplasm: consists of organelles with specific functions, suspended in a liquid called cytosol

- cell (plasma) membrane: outer boundary of a cell, which maintains cell integrity and controls entry and exit of substances

extracellular fluid vs intracellular fluid

intracellular fluid is the fluid inside cells rich in potassium, while extracellular fluid is outside cells, rich in sodium and serves to transport nutrients and wastes

explain how the components of a cells membrane provide its functions

- cell (plasma) membrane: signal transduction - permits cell to receive and respond to messages

- phospholipid bilayer: framework

--water-soluble (hydrophilic) heads form surfaces

--water-insoluble (hydrophobic) tails form interior

- cholesterol: stabilizes membrane, helps keep it impermeable to water-soluble substances

- membrane proteins: pores, channels, receptors, enzymes, cell contact identification, CAMs (Cell adhesion molecules)

- carbohydrates: cell recognition and interaction, self markers

describe each kind of cytoplasmic organelle and explain its function

- cell (plasma) membrane

- cytoplasm

- nucleus

- mitochondrion

- ribosomes

- rough and smooth ER

- Golgi apparatus

- lysosomes

- peroxisomes

- centrioles

- cilia and flagella

- microvilli

- cytoskeleton

cytoplasmic organelle: cell (plasma) membrane

- thin, flexible boundary around the cell made of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins

- function: regulates what enters and leaves the cell, provides protection and support, and helps with communication between cells

cytoplasmic organelle: cytoplasm

- gel-like fluid inside the cell where organelles are suspended

- function: cushions and supports organelles, and provides a medium for chemical reactions

cytoplasmic organelle: nucleus

- large, membrane-bound structure containing DNA

- function: control center of the cell, stores genetic information, and directs protein synthesis and cell activities

cytoplasmic organelle: mitochondria

- bean-shaped organelles with a double membrane; inner membrane folded into cristae

- function: produce ATP (cell energy) through cellular respiration; the "powerhouse" of the cell

cytoplasmic organelle: ribosomes

- small structures made of RNA and proteins; can be free-floating or attached to the rough ER

- function: site of protein synthesis (assemble amino acids into proteins)

cytoplasmic organelle: rough endoplasmic reticulum

- network of membranes covered with ribosomes

- functions: modifies and transports proteins made by ribosomes

cytoplasmic organelle: smooth endoplasmic reticulum

- membrane network without ribosomes

- function: synthesizes lipids (fats, steroids), detoxifies harmful substances, and stores calcium

cytoplasmic organelle: Golgi apparatus (Golgi body)

- flattened stacks of membranes

- functions: modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for transport inside or outside the cell

cytoplasmic organelle: lysosomes (mostly in animal cells)

- membrane sacs filled with digestive enzymes

- functions: break down waste, damaged organelles, and food particles; the cells "recycling center"

cytoplasmic organelle: peroxisomes

- small organelles with enzymes

- function: break down fatty acids and detoxify harmful substances (like hydrogen peroxide)

cytoplasmic organelle: centrioles (animal cells)

- cylinder-shaped structures near the nucleus

- functions: help organize microtubules during cell division (form spindle fibers)

cytoplasmic organelle: cilia and flagella

- hair-like (cilia) or tail-like (flagella) extensions made of microtubules

- function: movement - cilia move substances across the cell surface; flagella help the cell move