Germany ~ Key Words

A-Level Germany (rise of Nazism); key terms, dates and people

Reich

Empire - Germany’s history has been split into three ‘Reichs’

Kaiser

Emperor of Germany

Otto von-Bismarck

Chancellor of Imperial Germany, and politically dominated Germany, until he was forced to resign by Kasier Wilhelm II

Reichstag

Name of the German government (parliament)

Junkers

Prussian aristocrat landowners who support the Kaiser

SPD

Social Democratic Party, campaign for democracy in Germany

Field Marshal Paul Von Hindenburg

Aristocratic landowner and professional soldier. Became a hero after defeating large Russian Army at the battle of Tannenberg 1915. Became chief of the General Staff in 1916. After Germany’s defeat, Hindenberg shifted blame for the humiliation onto politicians who took power after abdication.

General Erich Ludendorff

Key figure in German victories against Russian army. In 1916 joined Hindenberg in engineering overthrow of Chancellor, Theobald von Bethmann-Holweg, and became member of military committee which effectively ruled Germany until end of war. Reactionary in his politics and implacable opponent of New Republic established after abdication of Kaiser in November 1918.

Schlieffen Plan

German strategy to avoid two-front war by winning on Western Front before dealing with threat Russia, aiming to defeat France within 6 weeks by massive German offensive in Northern France & Belgium

President Wilson’s Fourteen Points

An idealistic set of points devised as a means to secure a ‘fair' peace after the war (e.g. create League of Nations, Give Alsace-Lorraine to France)

Prince Max of Baden

A moderate democratic conservative who was a member of the Royal House of Baden and had worked for the German Red Cross

Soviets

workers’ and soldiers’ councils established in Russian Revolution of 1917.

Friedrich Ebert

President of the SPD, and later the first President of the new Weimar Republic

General Groener

Deputy Chief of the Army and Quartermaster General (in charge of supplies)

Constituent Assembly

Elected body with the specific task of drawing up the new conconstitution

Rosa Luxemburg

Founder of the Spartacus League; Murdered in police custody in Berlin 1919. Had a long career in revolutionary politics in both Russia and Germany, and like Liebknecht had been imprisoned for anti-war stance. Leading figure in Spartacus League and during Spartacist Uprising (Jan 1919) she was captured by Freikorps, beaten and then shot, and her body was thrown into a canal.

Hugo Hasse

Leading figure of the SPD who opposed war from 1914 and became key figure in foundation of USPD. Initially joined Ebert’s provisional govt. in 1918 but resigned over suppression of workers. Shot and died of wounds in 1919

Stinnes-Legien Agreement

deal where trade unions made a commitment not to interefere with private ownership and the free market, in return for workers' committees, an 8 hour working day and full legal recognition.

Philipp Scheidemann

popular, long-standing member of the SPD, first joined in 1883 and became Reichstag deputy in 1903. Supported Germany’s entry into war but in favour of negotiated peace. On 9 Nov. 1918 he announced the birth of the new Republic before official abdication of Kaiser. Chancellor of the first coalition government of the New Republic (Feb - June 1919), then resigned in protest against harsh terms of Versailles Treaty

Reichstag

Main representative assembly and law-making body of parliament

Reichsrat

Second chamber of German parliament, made up of 67 representatives from the 17 states (Lander)

Lander

17 local states of Germany. Before unification in 1871, Germany consisted of separate states of varying societies and after unification these were incorporated into German Reich but local traditions + loyalties remained strong. Each state (Land) retained control over some functions of govt; in Weimar Constitution, states retained powers over police, education, religion + social welfare

Proportional Representation

System of elections in which parties allocated seats in parliament according to proportion of votes received

Autocracy

Power concentrated in the hands of one person

Hans von Seeckt

Became commander of Reichswehr (army) from 1920. Under his command from 1920-26 army became privileged elite beyond accountability

Diktat

An order of decree imposed by someone in power without popular consent

Woodrow Wilson

President of the USA at the time of the Treaty of Versailles

Georges Clemenceau

Prime Minister of France at the time of the Treaty of Versailles

David Lloyd-George

Prime Minister of Britain at the time of the Treaty of Versailles

National Self-determination

nations being able to decide whether they govern themselves, independent of larger empires or groupings of nations

Gustav Bauer

Member of the SPD and became Chancellor after Schiedemann. Forced to resign in 1920 after Kapp Putsch

Konstantin Fehrenbach

Leading member of the Centre Party, became Chancellor in 1920 in the first cabinet that didn’t include the SPD

Joseph Wirth

Minister of Finance in 1920, before becoming Chancellor in 1921 Members of the Centre Party

Passive Resistance

Refusing to work or co-operate

Wilhelm Cuno

Chancellor of Germany during the hyperinflation crisis. He had a lot of business experience so was chosen as chancellor to steer Germany through difficult economic times

The Ruhr

Heavily industrialised area of western Germany that included the towns of Dusseldorf, Essen and Dortmund. It generated 85% of German coal and had a large number of factories

Paramilitary

A group of civilians organised into a military style with uniforms and ranks; such groups take on military functions

Rye bread

Staple food item within the German diet

Mittlestand

‘middle rank'; a large but diverse social group including small farmers, shopkeepers and artisans; without steady sources of income, they felt themselves to be vulnerable to inflation and tended to look to govts. to protect their position

Key point of Hyperinflation

It wasn't a disaster for everyone; there were winners and losers, which divided German society

Winners of hyperinflation

• Black-marketeers - brought up food stock to sell at inflated prices

• People with debts, mortgages and loans - easily payable with worthless currency

• Entrepreneurs with new loans - took new & easily repaid with lower value currency

• Farmers - self sufficient

Winner of Hyperinflation

Hugo Stinnes, owner of substantial businesses before 1923 and deputy of DVP in the Reichstag. Used his businesses to raise bank loans and expand his empire; 150 newspapers/magazines, railways, banks, etc. Stinnes controlled 20% of German industry

Karl Marx

German revolutionary (1818 - 83) expressed his ideology in ‘The Communist Manifesto’ and ‘Capital'. He claimed that history was a continuous class struggle - known as ‘dialectic’ and predicted an eventual Communist revolution

Proletariat

Marxist term for working classes

Bourgeoisie

Marxist term for upper classes

Karl Liebknecht

Committed Marxist, imprisoned for campaigning against WW1. Released in Nov 1918, he resumed his political activities as one of the leading figures in the revolutionary Spartacus Leauge. During Spartacist rising (Nan 1919) he was captured by Freikorps, tortured and shot in the back on pretext he was trying to escape.

Freikorps

Unofficial ‘volunteer’ army units

Comintern

Communist International, set up 1919, to oversea Communism around the world, led by Russia.

German National People's Party (DNVP)

• coalition of nationalist-minded old imperial conservative parties, included groups like; Fatherland Party, Pan-German League

• Contained extremist and racist elements

• Had broad appeal among middle classes & largest party in the Reichstag on extreme right with 15.1% in 1920

‘Volkisch’ nationalism

Racist nationalism

Gustav Noske

Minister of Defence in SPD; responsible for use of army & Freikorps to suppress Spartacist revolt, but forced to resign after failure of Kapp Putsch

General Walther von Luttwitz (1859 - 1942)

Commander in Chief of the army in Berlin and in charge of Freikorps, outspoken opponent of the Treaty of Versailles, became driving force behind the Kapp Putsch - after failure of the putsch, he escaped to Hungary but returned to Germany in 1924 after being granted amnesty

Wolfgang Kapp (1868 - 1922)

Elected to the Reichstag in 1919 for nationalist DNVP. Attempted a Putsch in 1920 & tried to set himself up as Chancellor, but after failures fled to Sweden

Putsch

Coup or violent attempt to overthrow a govt

Gustav Stresemann (1879 - 1929)

Leader of DVP, Chancellor in 1923 and hugely important figure in German Politics as Foreign minister

Gustav Ritter von Kahr (1862 - 1934)

Right-wing conservative politician who was Minister-President of the right-wing govt. in Bavaria

Otto von Lossow (1866 - 1938)

Commander of the Reichswehr in Bavaria, staunch conservative and favoured strong national state

Stormtroopers (SA)

paramilitary wing of Nazi Party, led by Ernst Rohm; wearing distinctive brown shirts, had role of beating up Nazis’ opponents - many members previously Freikorps

‘Great Coalition'

1st government in history of Weimar Republic to incl. both left-wing and right-wing parties - Led by Gustav Stresemann and dealt with Hyperinflation

Hjalmar Schacht (1877 - 1970)

• Helped stabilization of German economy during hyperinflation.

• Became Reich Currency Commissioner in 1923, & introduced Rentenmark as new currency

• Negotiated Dawes and Young Plans, modifiying Germany’s reparations payments

• Became Economics Minister within Nazi Party (1934 -7)

Vernuftrepublikaner

Word used to describe Stresemann’s attitude towards politics - ‘rational republican’ given how he wanted the constitutional monarchy but out of necessity supported democratic Weimar Republic

Charles Dawes

• American banker and US Vice-President

• Joint winner of Nobel Peace Prize in 1925, with Stresemann for resolution of reparation isues

Cartel

Groups of companies in the same industries, which combined together to fix prices and protect profits. Cartels reduced competition but allowed more of the profits to be reinvested (e.g. in research)

Tariff

Duties/taxes that have to be paid on goods entering a country. Their purpose is to make foreign goods more expensive than those produced in the country, thereby protecting firms from foreign competition

Compulsory arbitration

Industrial problems often settled b arbitration, where both sides agree to allow independent figure, known as an arbitrator, decided on a situation. In Weimar Germany arbitration was made compulsory by law

Lock out

an action by an employer to stop workers doing their jobs until they agree to the employer's terms and conditions

Foreclosure

taking possession of mortgaged property when someone fails to keep up their repayments

Means Test

A check on the financial circumstances of a benefit claimant to confirm their eligibility for support

Civil Code of 1896

National framework of laws in Germany, to unify the laws of individual family values and maternal responsibilities

The League of German Women (BDF)

Largest women's organisation, which had 900,000 members, and promoted tradtional family values and maternal responsibilities

Clara Zetkint (1857 - 1933)

KPD member of the Reichstag, organised the first ever International Women's Day in 1911 - Blamed capitalism for the oppression of women

Marie Juchacz (1879 - 1956)

First woman to make a speech in the Reichstag and served as Reichstag deputy for the SPD until 1933 - came form a poor, rural background and left school at 14

Marianne Weber (1870 - 1954)

Intellectual, academic and wife of Max Weber, leading sociologist. Joined the DDP in 1919 and was the first woman elected to the state legislature in Baden

Paula Muller-Otfried (1865 - 1964)

Co-founder of German Protestant Women's League, opposed Women's suffrage, Member of DNVP & became a Reichstag deputy in 1920 and continued until 1932

Gymnasium schools

A selective school that provided a classical education; teaching methods were very authoritarian and discipline was maintained through corporal punishment - curriculum was rigid & most working-class people didn't attend these

Youth ‘cliques’

Gangs in working-class districts of large German cities, a.k.a. ‘Wild cliquen' (Wild Cliques). Wanted to break away from tradtional and constraints of parents' generation

Wandervogel

Group of middle class students, translated as ‘wandering birds/ birds of passage’ established in 1896 by a Berlin schoolteacher

Assimilation

Keeping ethnic and cultural identity but becoming fully integrated and accepted in mainstream German society

Theodor Wolff

Editor of liberal newspaper ‘Berliner Tageblatt’. From 1916, Wolff and his paper came under attack for urging negotiated peace and in 1918 was one of the founders of DDP. Went into exile in 1933 after his books were burned by the Nazis & was arrested in Italy in 1943 and sent to Sachsenhausen concentration camp, where he died

Kurt Eisner

Led the revolt in Bavaria that led to establishment of short-lived Bavarian Socialist Republic. Assassination in Munich in 1919 by right-wing nationalist

Jewish Bolshevism

A term used by anti-Semites in the Weimar period to imply that Jewish peopl and communists were closely associated and represented a danger to German values

Neue Sachlichkeit

‘New practicality’ or ‘New functionalism’ - essentially a desire to show reality and objectivity

Expressionism

A new form of art work believed works expressing meaning or emotion rather than physical reality

‘Avant garde'

Modern; reflecting emotions rather than external reality

Bauhaus

Art and design school where students were encouraged to break down barriers between art and technology by incorporating new materials into designs

Zeittheater

Translates as ‘theatre of the time’ introducing new dramatic methods, often with explicit left-wing sympathises

Ernst Thalmann (1886 - 1944)

• Chairman of Communist KPD in 1925

• Survived assasination attempt by right-wing paramilitary group in 1922 & believed the SPD were the Communists’ main enemies

• Communist candidate in presidential elections 1925 + 1932

• Arrested by Nazis in 1933 & imprisoned in Buchenwald concentration camp - executed on Hitler’s orders in 1944

Ersatzkaiser

Substitute Kaiser/ Emperor

Gregor Strasser (1892 - 1934)

effectively second to Hitler until 1932 and leader of anti-capitalist ‘left-wing’ socialist faction, had administration skills to develop mass movement for party, but murdered in Night of Long Knives

Gaue

Germany divided into regions

Gauleiter

NSDAP leaders of each individual region

‘Mutual guarantee’ agreement

not a formal alliance, but an agreement to accept borders

League of Nations

Permanent forum of states established after WW1 to meet and resolve disputes without resorting to war, most states joined League but USA declined & Germany + Russia initially excluded

IMCC

Inter-Allied Control Commission, established under the Treaty of Versailles to ensure Germany comlied with disarmament clauses

Wall Street Crash

The sudden collapse of the stock market in New York in October 1929 after a long period of rising prosperity and overconfidence by investors

‘Black Thursday’

24 October 1929, date of the New York Stock Exchange experienced its worst ever fall in share prices

Shanty town

Rough shelters built without official permission in areas with no access to running water or gas/ electricity supplies. They were inhabited by the poor, especially those who no longer qualified for benefits

Grand Coalition

One if the most broadly based coalition governments in Weimar period, representing 5 political parties, from SPD on left to moderate right-wing DVP, Led by Hermann Muller

Heinrich Bruning

financial expert and leading member of Centre Party in Reichstag. In 1930, became the longest continuously serving Chancellor of Weimar Republic, historically controversial figure

Kurt von Schleicher

During the early years of Weimar Republic, had played a crucial role in political activities of army, helping to negotiate Ebert-Groener Pact and handling negotiations with USSR on building of German arms factories in Russia. After 1926 was political head of the army - part of Hindenberg’s inner circle of advisers & helped steer Hindenberg towards more authoritarian style of govt.