Semester 1 Anatomy Final

Anatomy

the structure of body parts

Physiology

the function of the body parts

Differentiation

the process by which a cell becomes specialized to perform a specific function (cells differentiate by activating and deactivating genes)

Positive feedback loops

amplify or increase the occurrence of events (ex: breast feeding - stimulates the pituitary gland to produce more prolactin to produce milk)

Negative feedback loop

normal biological response in which the effects of a reaction slow or stop that reaction (ex: when your body temperature rises, causing you to sweat, which then cools you down, bringing your temperature back to normal)

Anatomical position

the body is erect (standing up straight) with feet slightly apart and palms facing forward so that your thumbs point away from the body (prone = face-down supine = face-up)

Axial Portion

head, neck, spine

Appendicular Portion

arms & legs

Viscera

internal organs

Superior (Cranial)

toward the head or upper body (above)

Inferior (Caudal)

away from the head or lower body (below)

Anterior (Ventral)

toward or at the front of the body

Posterior (Dorsal)

toward or at the back of the body

Medial

toward or at the midline of the body (inner side of)

Lateral

away from the midline of the body (outer side of)

Proximal

closer to the origin of the body part or point of attachment of a limb to the trunk

Distal

farther from the origin of a body part of the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

Superficial (external)

toward or at the surface

Deep (internal)

away from the body surface

Ipsilateral

same side of the body

Contralateral

opposite sides of the body

Dorsal Cavity

back side

Ventral Cavity

front side

Diaphragm

separates the thoracic and pelvic region

Thoracic Cavity

lungs, heart, thymus gland

Serous Membrane

two layers, covers organs

Parietal

outer layer

Visceral (lines the organs)

inner layer

Pleura

lungs

Pericardium

heart

Peritoneum

organs

Right hypochondriac region

contains the liver and gallbladder, parts of the small intestine, components of the ascending and transverse colon and the right kidney

Umbilical region

The central area of the abdomen that surrounds the umbilicus; it lies inferior to the epigastric region, superior to the suprapubic region, and is bounded laterally by the two lumbar regions

Hypogastric region

a region of the abdomen located below the umbilical region

Right iliac region

located in the lower right abdomen, primarily houses parts of the large intestine (including the cecum and appendix) and is involved in digestion and waste processing

Left hypochondriac region

located in the upper left abdomen, contains parts of the stomach, spleen, pancreas, and left kidney, playing roles in digestion, blood filtration, and immune system support

Left lumbar region

located in the mid-left abdomen, contains parts of the descending colon and the left kidney, contributing to digestion and waste elimination as well as urinary system function

Left iliac region

located in the lower left abdomen, contains parts of the descending colon and sigmoid colon, playing a role in the final stages of digestion and waste elimination

Epigastric region

located in the upper central abdomen, contains parts of the stomach, liver, pancreas, and duodenum, playing a key role in digestion and metabolic processes

Phospholipid

a type of lipid molecule that consist of a hydrophilic (water-attracting) phosphate head and two hydrophobic (water-repelling) fatty acid tails, forming the primary structural component of cell membranes by creating a bilayer that separates the cell's internal and external environments

Active transport

the movement of molecules or ions across a cell membrane against their concentration gradient, requiring energy input in the form of ATP and often involving protein pumps

Passive transport

the movement of molecules or ions across a cell membrane without the use of cellular energy, occurring along their concentration gradient and including processes like diffusion and osmosis

Diffusion

a type of passive transport where molecules move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration until equilibrium is reached

Solute

a substance that is dissolved in a solvent to form a solution, such as salt or sugar in water

Solvent

the substance, usually a liquid, that dissolves a solute to form a solution, with water being the most common example

Concentration gradient

the difference in the concentration of a substance between two regions, driving the movement of molecules during processes like diffusion and osmosis

Osmosis

the passive movement of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration, aiming to equalize solute concentrations on both sides of the membrane

Isotonic

has an equal concentration of solutes compared to another solution, resulting in no net movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane

Hypotonic

has a lower concentration of solutes compared to another solution, causing water to move into the area with higher solute concentration (often into a cell), potentially leading to swelling or bursting

Hypertonic

has a higher concentration of solutes compared to another solution, causing water to move out of the area with lower solute concentration (often out of a cell), potentially leading to shrinkage or dehydration

Tonicity

the relative concentration of solutes in a solution, influencing the direction of water movement across a selectively permeable membrane, and determining whether the solution is isotonic, hypotonic, or hypertonic

Sodium-potassium exchange pump

an active transport mechanism that moves sodium ions out of a cell and potassium ions into the cell, both against their concentration gradients, using energy from ATP to maintain cellular function and homeostasis

Endocytosis

a process by which cells engulf external substances, forming a vesicle to bring them into the cell

Exocytosis

the process by which cells expel substances by vesicles fusing with the cell membrane, releasing their contents outside the cell

Phagocytosis

a type of endocytosis where cells, typically white blood cells, engulf large particles, such as pathogens or debris, and digest them

Pinocytosis

a type of endocytosis where the cell engulfs extracellular fluid and dissolved solutes into small vesicles, often referred to as "cell drinking”

Renal cortex

the outer region of the kidney, containing the renal corpuscles and the proximal and distal convoluted tubules, playing a key role in filtration and reabsorption

Renal medulla

the inner region of the kidney, consisting of renal pyramids and involved in the concentration of urine through the loops of Henle and collecting ducts

Renal pelvis

a funnel-shaped structure in the kidney that collects urine from the renal calyces and channels it into the ureter for transport to the bladder

Kidney

a pair of vital organs in the urinary system that filter blood to remove waste products and excess substances, regulate fluid and electrolyte balance, and produce urine, which is excreted from the body. The kidneys also play roles in regulating blood pressure, red blood cell production, and calcium metabolism

Nephron

functional unit of the kidney

Afferent arteriole

a small blood vessel that carries blood into the glomerulus of the kidney, where filtration occurs

Efferent arteriole

carries blood away from the glomerulus after filtration has taken place, leading to the peritubular capillaries

Glomerulus

a network of capillaries in the kidney where blood filtration begins, allowing water, salts, glucose, and waste to pass into the Bowman's capsule

Proximal convoluted tubule

the first segment of the renal tubule, where the majority of reabsorption of water, ions, and nutrients from the filtrate occurs

Loop of Henle

a U-shaped portion of the renal tubule responsible for creating a concentration gradient in the kidney, which helps concentrate urine and reabsorb water and sodium

Distal convoluted tubule

the segment of the renal tubule where further reabsorption of sodium and water occurs, and where secretion of potassium and hydrogen ions happens

Collecting duct

the final part of the renal tubule, where urine is concentrated by the reabsorption of water, and it channels urine into the renal pelvis

Peritubular capillaries

small blood vessels that surround the renal tubules, facilitating the exchange of substances between the tubules and blood, such as reabsorption of water and nutrients

Urinalysis

a diagnostic test that examines the physical, chemical, and microscopic properties of urine to assess overall health and detect conditions such as infections, kidney disease, diabetes, and urinary tract disorders. It typically includes measurements of color, clarity, pH, specific gravity, protein, glucose, ketones, and the presence of cells or microorganisms

Urinary bladder

a hollow, muscular organ that stores urine produced by the kidneys until it is excreted from the body

Urethra

a tube that connects the urinary bladder to the outside of the body, allowing urine to be expelled during urination

Retroperitoneally

the location of certain organs that lie behind (or posterior to) the peritoneum, the membrane lining the abdominal cavity. These organs, such as the kidneys, adrenal glands, and pancreas, are not surrounded by the peritoneal cavity but are positioned between the peritoneum and the posterior abdominal wall

Renal sinus

the hollow region within the kidney that houses the renal pelvis, major and minor calyces, blood vessels, nerves, and fatty tissue

Minor calyx

a large, funnel-shaped structure in the kidney that collects urine from several minor calyces and channels it into the renal pelvis

Minor calyx

a smaller, cup-like structure in the kidney that receives urine from the renal papillae (tips of the renal pyramids) and funnels it into the major calyces

Renal pyramid

a cone-shaped structure in the renal medulla of the kidney, containing the loops of Henle and collecting ducts, and is involved in urine concentration

Ureter

a muscular tube that carries urine from the renal pelvis of the kidney to the urinary bladder for storage before excretion

Renal artery

a blood vessel that supplies oxygenated blood to the kidneys, branching off from the abdominal aorta and delivering blood to the kidneys for filtration

Renal vein

a blood vessel that carries deoxygenated blood away from the kidneys and drains it into the inferior vena cava, after the kidneys have filtered waste products from the blood

Aorta

the largest artery in the body, originating from the left ventricle of the heart, and carrying oxygenated blood to the rest of the body through its various branches

Inferior vena cava

a large vein that carries deoxygenated blood from the lower half of the body to the right atrium of the heart

Secretion

the process by which substances, such as ions, waste products, and drugs, are actively transported from the blood into the renal tubules, eventually becoming part of the urine

Reabsorption

the process by which essential substances like water, glucose, and ions are absorbed from the renal tubules back into the blood, preventing their loss in urine

Micturition

the process of urination, where urine is expelled from the urinary bladder through the urethra to the outside of the body, controlled by both voluntary and involuntary muscle contractions

Catheterization

a medical procedure in which a catheter (a thin, flexible tube) is inserted into the body, typically into the bladder through the urethra, to drain urine or administer fluids or medications. It is commonly used when a patient is unable to urinate naturally due to medical conditions or surgery

Kidney stones

minerals form inside the kidney and must pass through the ureter (PAINFUL)

Cytisis

bacteria enters the bladder or kidneys

Overactive bladder

sudden contractions of bladder produce sensation of urgency

Incontinence

inability to control urination (or defcation)

Dialysis

a treatment that filters a person's blood when their kidneys are no longer working properly

Loose connective tissue

the stretchable fascia between organs-like an elastic glue spread between organs

Adipose connective tissue

fat storage under the skin; important for protection and insulation

Reticular connective tissue

web like fibers of the lymphatic(immune) system; helps filter blood and contains white blood cells to destroy dangerous invaders

Dense connective tissue

tendons and ligaments—flexible but strong

-tendon-connects muscle to bone

-ligament-connects bone to bone

Bone tissue (osteocytes)

osteoblast—bone building cell

osteoclast—bone destroying cell

^work together and can reshape this tissue

Hyaline cartilage

shiny and smooth, at the ends of bones (lining of joints)

Fibrocartilage

strongest and most durable, “shock absorbers” (intervertebral discs, meniscus of the knee joint)

Elastic cartilage

most flexible cartilage (ears, nose, larynx)

Erythrocytes

red blood cells: carry oxygen (some carbon dioxide)