Big Bang, Nucleosynthesis, Atomic Theory, and Chemical Bonding

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Vocabulary flashcards covering cosmology, nucleosynthesis, early atomic theory, and chemical bonding concepts from the lecture notes.

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40 Terms

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Big Bang Model

Explanation of the simultaneous appearance of space everywhere followed by expansion and cooling, not a theory but a cosmological model.

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Primordial Nucleosynthesis

Early-universe process that formed the light elements hydrogen, helium, lithium, and beryllium within the first few minutes after the Big Bang.

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Stellar Nucleosynthesis

Fusion processes inside stars that build elements from boron up to iron.

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Supernova Nucleosynthesis

Creation of elements heavier than iron (e.g., gold) during explosive deaths of massive stars.

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Hubble’s Law

Observation that galaxies recede from Earth at speeds proportional to their distance, implying an expanding universe.

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Edwin Hubble

Astronomer who, with Milton Humason, discovered that nebulae are distant galaxies and formulated Hubble’s Law.

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George Gamow

Physicist who proposed that a hot, dense early universe produced light elements through nucleosynthesis.

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Ralph Alpher

Co-author of the α–β–γ paper supporting Gamow’s Big Bang nucleosynthesis predictions.

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Hans Bethe

Scientist who explained that nuclear reactions in stars create heavier elements.

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Deuterium

Isotope of hydrogen containing one proton and one neutron; formed during Big Bang nucleosynthesis.

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Silicon Burning

Late stellar fusion phase that produces iron, the heaviest element formed in stellar cores.

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Beta Decay

Radioactive process where a neutron converts to a proton with emission of an electron, creating a nucleus of the next higher atomic number.

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Neutron Capture

Addition of a neutron to a nucleus, potentially forming a heavier isotope or element.

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s-Process (Slow Neutron Capture)

Neutron captures separated by thousands of years inside a star’s carbon core, producing nuclei up to lead (Z = 82).

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r-Process (Rapid Neutron Capture)

Burst of neutron captures during a supernova that creates very heavy, neutron-rich nuclei like uranium and plutonium.

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Thales of Miletus

Early Greek thinker who proposed that water is the fundamental substance from which matter arises.

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Leucippus and Democritus

Greek philosophers who originated atomism, asserting that matter is composed of indivisible atoms moving in the void.

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Aristotle (Four Qualities)

Philosopher who rejected atomism, defining matter by hot, cold, wet, and dry qualities combining into earth, air, fire, and water.

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Alchemists

Medieval experimenters who developed laboratory apparatus, acids, salts, and symbolic notation while attempting to transmute metals into gold.

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Paracelsus

Renaissance physician-alchemist who coined the term “alcohol” and advanced medical chemistry.

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Atomic Number (Z)

Number of protons in an atom’s nucleus; identifies the element.

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Atomic Mass (A)

Total number of protons and neutrons in an atom’s nucleus.

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Isotope

Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons, hence different masses but identical atomic numbers.

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Polarity (Molecular)

Uneven distribution of electrical charge in a molecule determined by electronegativity differences and molecular geometry.

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Electronegativity

Ability of an atom to attract electrons in a chemical bond; increases toward the upper right of the periodic table.

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Non-Polar Covalent Bond

Bond with an electronegativity difference < 0.4; electrons are shared equally.

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Polar Covalent Bond

Bond with a moderate electronegativity difference (0.4 < ΔEN < 1.8); electrons shared unequally.

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Ionic Bond

Bond with an electronegativity difference > 1.8; electron transfer creates ions.

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Symmetrical Molecule

Molecular shape with balanced charge distribution, resulting in overall non-polarity.

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Asymmetrical Molecule

Shape in which charge distribution is uneven, making the molecule polar.

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VSEPR Theory

Valence-shell electron-pair repulsion model stating that electron pairs arrange to minimize repulsion, determining molecular geometry.

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Intermolecular Forces (IMF)

Attractive forces between molecules influencing boiling point, melting point, viscosity, and surface tension.

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London Dispersion Force

Weakest IMF arising from temporary electron fluctuations; present in solids, liquids, and gases.

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Dipole–Dipole Force

Attraction between permanent dipoles of polar molecules.

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Hydrogen Bond

Strong dipole–dipole interaction between hydrogen and highly electronegative atoms (F, O, or N).

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Ion–Dipole Interaction

Attractive force between an ion and the oppositely charged pole of a polar molecule.

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Surface Tension

Measure of a liquid’s surface resistance; increases with stronger intermolecular forces.

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Viscosity

Resistance to flow in a liquid, heightened by stronger intermolecular attractions.

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Element Lead (Pb) Limit

Upper atomic number (82) reachable via the s-process in stellar interiors.

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Rapid Supernova Environment

Extremely dense, neutron-rich setting where the r-process produces the heaviest elements.