nigeria case study guide

Niger river delta

The country has rich natural resources, including oil reserves, especially in the Niger Delta region. 

Hausa-Fulani

(30%/6%) are overwhelmingly Muslim and have a strong presence in the northern region, with a history of political power in the country.

Yoruba

(16%) mostly found in the southwest and Lagos, practice both Christianity and I

Igbo

(15%), concentrated in the southeast, are predominantly Christian and have a history of political activism, notably during the Biafran (Nigerian Civil) War.

British Administration of Nigeria

The British established an indirect rule at first, where they left pre-colonial kingdoms to be ruled by local leaders. In northern Nigeria, this meant ruling through the islamic emirs, who in general accepted British oversight as long as they were left to run internal affairs as they pleased. In the south, the British used established leaders to carry out their policies, but where there were no formal leaders (like amongst the Igbo), the British appointed someone to lead. The British empowered these leaders with more power than they had before, in exchange for their implementation of unpopular policies, such as forced labor and tax collection. The colonial state required people with formal education to staff its bureaucracy. In the south, Christianity and Western education expanded rapidly; the northern Emirs, on the other hand, convinced colonial authorities to keep out Christian education to preserve Islam. Because of the greater economic importance and wealth of the south, the British were fine with this agreement. 

Lyttleton Constitution

First called the 1946 Richards Constitution, it aimed to create a more representative government, though it still favored the British and local elites. Tensions between Nigeria’s ethnic groups– particularly Igbo, Yoruba, and Hausa– intensified as competition for political power and resources grew. In 1954, the Lyttleton Constitution established a federal system, dividing Nigeria into three regions, based on the Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba, and Igbo, which further fueled ethnic and regional rivalry.

Military Coups in Nigeria

In 1966, everything fell apart with incredible speed. The year began with a military coup (1st) in January, led by young army officers from the Igbo ethnic group, which resulted in the assassination of Prime Minister Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, as well as other political and military leaders from the north.The coup exacerbated ethnic tensions, particularly between the Igbos and the northern Hausa-Fulani people, leading to a backlash in the form of violent reprisals against the Igbo in the north, which left thousands dead. In July 1966, another military coup (2nd) took place, this time led by northern officers, resulting in the death of Major General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi (Igbo), who had become Nigeria's head of state after the first coup. The second coup further deepened divisions and led to the rise of Lt. Colonel Odumegwu Ojukwu, who would later declare the independence of Biafra, setting the stage for the Nigerian Civil War.

Nigerian Civil War/ Biafran War

took place from 1967 to 1970, following the secession of the oil rich southeastern region of Nigeria, which declared itself the Republic of Biafra. The Nigerian government, led by General Yakubu Gowon, opposed the secession, viewing it as a threat to national unity, and swiftly launched a military campaign to reassert control over the breakaway region. Gowon himself was a Christian ethnic minority largely supported by Northern Islamic leaders. The war was characterized by fierce fighting with the Nigerian forces receiving support from countries like the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union, while Biafra received limited aid secretly from countries like France. The Biafran War ended in January 1970 when Colonel Odumegwu Ojukwu, the leader of Biafra, surrendered to the Nigerian government, officially reuniting the country after nearly three years of devastating conflict. The humanitarian costs of the Biafran War were catastrophic, with an estimated one to three million people, mostly civilians, losing her lives. The Nigerian government’s blockade of Biafra led to widespread famine, causing severe malnutrition and starvation, particularly among children. The images of emaciated children became iconic, drawing global attention to the crisis and prompting international relief efforts, though aid was often hindered by the ongoing conflict. Healthcare and infrastructure in Biafra collapsed, leading to outbreaks of diseases like dysentery and cholera, further exacerbating the suffering. The war also displaced millions of people, creating a refugee crisis as families fled the fighting and the ravages of hunger and disease. 

Sani Abacha

General Sani Abacha ruled Nigeria from 1993 until his sudden death in 1998, establishing one of the most repressive and authoritarian regimes in the country’s history. Abacha came to power after the controversial annulment of the 1993 presidential elections, dissolving the transitional government and ruling by decree. His regime was marked by widespread human rights abuses, including the imprisonment,  ( including 1993 Election winner Abiola), torture, and execution of political opponents. Abacha’s government heavily censored the press, stifled political opposition, eliminated judicial independence, and maintained a tight grip on power through military and paramilitary forces. Abacha’s personalist regime was marked by significant corruption, with billions of dollars siphoned off from Nigeria’s po; wealth, much of which was stashed in foreign banks before his unexpected death in 1998.

Nigerian Constitution of 1999

allows states to set their own legal codes within national law and Nigeria has long allowed dual civil-law codes based on religion.

Nigerian Federalism

Nigeria has a federal system of government that divides political authority between the central government and the states. Nigeria has 36 states, and a separate federal territory for the capital of Abuja, that have the constitutional power to make local laws. Unlike many federal systems (like the US or Mexico), Nigeria's states are drawn roughly along ethnic lines. The goal of this system is to reduce conflict by allowing ethnic and religious groups some measure of autonomy over issues such as social and educational services (or Sharia Law in the north).However, as Nigeria’s volatile post-colonial politics have shown ethnically based federalism can also lead to more disunity and conflicting laws. As a result of Nigeria’s federal system, states can create their own legal systems

Sharia Law in the North

The establishment with sharia law in the north led to confrontations with Christian minorities in several of those states and opposition in the south in general. Long standing northern and Muslim control of national politics have left southerners and Christians fearful of Islamic extremists like Boko Haram. Further complicating things is the lack of uniformity amongst the Sharia states with how it is applied- some states apply the laws to non-muslims and others do not, while some still include harsh penalties like stoning.

Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC)

Created in 2003 by the government to investigate financial crimes, prosecute those accused of wrongdoing, and recover government funds diverted for personal benefit. Government reports found that approximately $1.5 billion of oil revenues failed to reach the Treasury in 2012-13 alone and another $16 billion between 2014 and 2021. Continued corruption has weakened state institutions, harmed the ability of the INEC to conduct proper elections, and prevented people in oil-producing states from benefiting from their resources

Nigerian President

Nigeria has a presidential system of government- the President is directly elected and serves as both head of government and head of state. The president serves for a four-year term with a limit of two terms. The president has executive powers typical of a presidential system, including the power to submit a budget, propose a program of legislation, and sign bills into law. He appoints cabinet heads ( with Senate approval) and oversees the federal bureaucracy. He serves as commander in chief of the military and is the chief diplomat, having the power to negotiate treaties (subject to approval of the National Assembly). Based on the recommendation of a special judicial council, the president appoints justices to the Nigerian Supreme Court (subject to confirmation by the Senate)

President Elections

Nigerians directly elect the President every four years, but follow unique rules in its elections. The winning candidate must obtain a plurality of the votes AND at least 25% of the vote in two-thirds of the states to assume the presidency.

Patronage System

Nigeria has a patronage-based system with oil revenue available to reward supporters, so the presidency is very powerful and has the potential to be lucrative. The limits of a presidential power has been tested in Nigeria recently- the first test came when President Obansanjo launched a campaign to revoke the two term limit for the presidency in 2006. Reportedly, he and his supporters tried to bribe senators, with inducements totalling more than $500 million, to vote in favor of the constitutional amendment. The population overwhelmingly opposed the move and the Senate voted down the idea in May 2006. The second challenge began in 2009 when President Yar-Adua became gravely ill and left the country for treatment in Saudi Arabia.

Nigerian National Assembly/ House of Representatives/ Senate

Nigeria’s legislature is bicameral. The house of representatives is the lower house and it represents the people. It consists of 360 members and it is led by the speaker of the house. The senate is the upper house and it represents the states. It has 109 members, three from each state, and one from the Federal Territory of Abuja.

Legislative power and oversight

Both chambers have the power to debate and pass national legislation, and bills must pass in both chambers to be sent to the president’s desk for signature. A committee system, very similar to that of the United States, refines legislation before it is sent to the full chamber. The National Assembly has the power to approve the federal budget. Both chambers have the authority hearings to conduct oversight hearings into the actions of other officials, including government agencies and private businesses. The senate also has the power to confirm appointments to the cabinet and Supreme Court justices. The national assembly has the authority to check executive power. It has the power to override a presidential veto with a two-thirds vote of both houses. They also have the power to impeach and remove cabinet members and the president for gross misconduct by a two-thirds vote of both houses

Nigerian Supreme Court

Because Nigeria has a federal system, there are separate courts at the state and national levels. The federal judiciary includes trial courts, appeals courts, and the Supreme Court, which serves as the final court of appeal. Judges are required to have formal legal training and to have been in the profession for at least 10 years. The supreme court in Nigeria is made up of the chief justice and a group of associate justices, with the total number not exceeding 21. On paper, the Supreme Court has judicial review– yet under military rule, it deferred to the President. In recent years, it has made several governor victories and required new elections

Election Fraud

Election fraud has been a problem since the founding of Nigeria’s fourth republic-voter intimidation, rigging, etc- but the situation is improving

Independent National Election Commission (INEC)

One major step was the introduction of the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC), which supervises elections through independent observers, monitoring and registering political parties and candidates, and audits campaign finances

Goodluck Jonathan

He substantially improved the credibility of the INEC by appointing university scholars and political scientists to head up the commission– it worked so well, that he lost his reelection bid in 2015 to Muhammadu Buhari. Although corruption still plagues elections, Nigeria is continually improving the process, like introducing fingerprinting at the polls

Muhammadu Buhari

the president of nigeria that won against goodluck jonathan

All Progressives Congress (APC)

Founded in 2013, the APC is a centrist political party that emerged as a coalition of opposition parties, and it has been the ruling party since 2015. It is generally associated with pro-market reforms, anti-corruption efforts, and conservative values

People’s Democratic Party

Established in 1998, the PDP is a center-right party that dominated Nigerian politics from 1999 to 2015, holding the presidency for most of that period. The PDP advocates for social welfare policies and has a broad base of support across the country, especially in the southern and central regions

Labour Party/Social Democratic Party (SPD)

Although it was a major party in the early 1990s, the center-left SDP has been less influential in recent years. It leans toward social democracy and has supported economic reforms aimed at reducing inequality

Pluralism in Nigeria

There are five broad categories of interest groups operating in Nigeria:  1) regional, ethnic, and religious; 2) professional and labor groups; 3) grassroots organizations; 4) issue-based groups; and 5) NGOs. Despite the number of interest groups in Nigeria, there are obstacles to strengthening civil society.  Weak government institutions make it difficult for interest groups to advocate for policies and get them enacted.  In addition, distrust between groups weakens social capital. Lastly, because the government relies on oil as a source of revenue, some officials have little incentive to work with civil society groups for the betterment of society–for that reason, it’s tough to really deem Nigeria a fully pluralistic society.

MOSOP/ Ogoni People

Two of the most recognized social movements are the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP) and the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND)--both share in their work against foreign oil companies in the Niger Delta. MOSOP, made up of the Ogoni people in southeast Nigeria, seeks self-determination and protection for traditional practices of the Ogoni–it also promotes non-violence and supports democratic government. MOSOP complained that Shell, ExxonMobil, Chevron, and other foreign oil companies were using their political influence with the national government to profit at the expense of local communities, destroying the environment.  In the 1990s, people in the Niger Delta region began protesting and engaging in minor industrial sabotage

Ken Saro-Wiwa

In 1995, the Nigerian government (under General Abacha) hanged MOSOP founder and activist Ken Saro-Wiwa, much to the horror of environmentalists and governments worldwide

Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND)

Saro-Wiwa’s death and government brutality radicalized many of the anti-oil groups, kidnapping oil workers and holding them for ransom. One radical group that emerged was MEND in 2006, led by Henry Okah, who was later arrested for buying illegal weapons in Angola the following year.  MEND’s tactics are lucrative and it has attracted wealthy financial backers.  MEND is equipped with speedboats, body armor, assault rifles, machine guns, and rocket-propelled grenade launchers. In recent years, the membership is fluid and hard to predict–US intelligence has insinuated that it is currently outsourcing its membership to gangs and criminal elements. In any case, some estimates place the costs of MEND’s attacks at billions of dollars of lost oil income

Bunkering

Some groups also engaged in “bunkering”, which is illegally tapping into pipelines and selling oil locally or to tankers offshore.

Civil Rights

The constitution also protects civil rights, including “freedom from discrimination based on a particular community, ethnic group, place of origin, sex, religion, or public opinion.” Although equal rights for women are constitutionally protected, Nigeria remains a largely patriarchal society.  Women have the right to vote and run for office, but few women serve in the Nigerian government–only 3% of the seats in the House of Representatives and 4% of the seats in the Senate are currently held by women. Female literacy rates are far below men’s in Nigeria (53% to 71%), making it more difficult to participate

Civil Liberties

The Nigerian Constitution provides extensive protections for civil liberties, including due process rights for those accused of crimes, freedom of expression, assembly, and the press, the right to practice religion and the right to privacy. Although civil liberties are protected on paper, they are not protected in practice. For example, while Nigerians have freedom of speech, they have far less freedom to criticize leaders or the military, in addition to sensitive topics like religion and ethnicity. Human Rights activists have been detained in recent years in Nigeria by national intelligence and investigations agencies for criticizing state government and military officials. Furthermore, Reporters Without Borders deems Nigeria to be a dangerous place (112th out of 180), albeit vast improvement has been seen as of late. Amnesty International reports that the Nigerian government has engaged in serious due process violations of those accused of crimes, including arbitrary arrest and detention, torture, and executions

Ethnic Cleavages

Ethnic cleavages in Nigeria are deeply rooted in the country’s diverse cultural and linguistic groups, with over 250 distinct ethnicities. The three major ethnic groups—Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba, and Igbo—often dominate political power, leading to tensions and competition among them. Historically, these ethnic groups have experienced conflicts over resource allocation, political representation, and regional autonomy

Religious Cleavages

These cleavages are further exacerbated by religious differences, with Islam prevalent in the north and Christianity in the south, influencing national unity and stability. Religious cleavages in Nigeria are marked by a significant divide between Islam, predominantly practiced in the north, and Christianity, which is more common in the south. This division has historically influenced political power, with northern states tending to elect Muslim leaders and southern states favoring Christian candidates. Tensions between these two religious groups often result in violent conflicts, especially in areas with mixed religious populations. The country's middle belt, where both Christians and Muslims coexist, is a frequent hotspot for religious violence. These religious cleavages are compounded by ethnic divisions, as many ethnic groups align with one religion, further deepening the divide and challenging national unity. This is only made more complex by the millions in Nigeria that still practice traditional animist faiths

Geographic Cleavages

The division between the north and south of Nigeria, primarily along ethnic lines, also contributes to significant political and economic disparities

Boko Haram

is a jihadist extremist group based in northeastern Nigeria, formed in 2002, that seeks to establish an Islamic state governed by Sharia law. The group gained international attention in 2009 after escalating its attacks, including bombings, kidnappings, and assaults on both civilian and military targets. Boko Haram's infamous kidnapping of over 200 schoolgirls in Chibok in 2014 brought worldwide outrage and further spotlighted the group’s violence. It has spread its operations into neighboring countries like Chad, Niger, and Cameroon, forming a regional threat. The Nigerian government, with international support, has struggled to contain Boko Haram's insurgency, which continues to destabilize the region

Ethnic quotas

The ethnic quota system in Nigeria was introduced in 1954 during British colonial rule, primarily to address the political and economic imbalances between the country’s various ethnic groups. Its main aim was to ensure fair representation of Nigeria's diverse ethnic groups in government, preventing domination by any single group and fostering national unity. The system works by allocating federal positions and resources in a way that reflects the ethnic composition of the country, with quotas set for different regions or groups. While the quota system has been effective in promoting inclusivity, it has also led to criticism for perpetuating mediocrity, fostering ethnic rivalry, and undermining meritocracy

National Youth Service Corps (NYSC)

The Nigerian National Youth Service Corps (NYSC) is a one-year mandatory program established in 1973 for Nigerian graduates under the age of 30. Its primary goal is to foster national unity and integration by deploying graduates to different parts of the country for community service. Participants, known as corps members, engage in various activities including teaching, healthcare, and infrastructure development in underserved areas. The program also aims to build leadership skills, promote national consciousness, and reduce regional disparities. At the end of the service year, corps members receive a certificate of completion, which is a requirement for employment in most Nigerian government organizations

Economic transitions

At independence in 1960, Nigeria was a poor, agricultural country with little industry–as much as 98% of the population worked in agriculture, producing 65% of the country’s GDP and 70% of its exports. The impact of the Biafran War was catastrophic and in the 1970s, Nigeria began to shift its economic focus. Like Mexico, the Nigerian government initially attempted to industrialize by adopting ISI policies, seeing mass investment by the government in large-scale industry. Yet most of the Nigerian investors were government officials or political/military leaders, so the system was inherently corrupt. Since that time, Nigeria invests almost nothing in agriculture, which has declined from being the most important sector of the economy to mostly subsistence farming

Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC)

formed joint investments with foreign companies to extract and produce oil

Nigeria as rentier state

 Oil production and revenue had overwhelmed all other aspects of the economy and made the government dangerously dependent on the global oil market for political and economic survival

Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)

established in 1975 to promote regional integration and economic cooperation. As the largest economy in West Africa, Nigeria has a significant influence on ECOWAS’s economic policies and initiatives. The country has also been pivotal in supporting peacekeeping efforts within the region, contributing troops and resources to restore stability in conflict-affected countries like Sierra Leone and Liberia. Nigeria actively participates in ECOWAS's efforts to promote free trade, improve infrastructure, and enhance the free movement of people and goods. Through its leadership and contributions, Nigeria continues to shape the development and direction of ECOWAS in both economic and political spheres

National Social Investment Programs (NSIC)

Launched in 2016, aimed to reduce poverty by providing financial assistance, skill training, and employment opportunities to vulnerable populations. The government has made efforts to improve access to education through policies like free primary education, although quality and infrastructure remain significant challenges. Issues remain with the NSIP, especially in regards to the disconnect between the federal government and state governments. Furthermore, state governments discriminate against ethnic minorities in the implementation of the program

National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIC)

was implemented, which sets up a system where the people pre-pay a fixed amount, which goes into an HMO (Health Maintenance Organization).  Still, this is widely underused by the rural populations and the poor because they cannot afford the payments.  Thus most people pay for health care out of pocket. Despite these efforts, social inequality remains a persistent issue, with disparities in wealth, healthcare, and education between urban and rural areas

Nollywood

Nigeria's film industry, known as Nollywood, has become one of the largest and most influential film industries in the world, producing thousands of movies annually. The industry gained global recognition in the 1990s with low-budget, high-output films that focused on storytelling rooted in Nigerian culture and societal issues. Nollywood has a massive local audience, and its films are popular across Africa, as well as in diasporic communities. The industry's rapid growth has been driven by digital technology, which has made filmmaking more accessible, even to independent filmmakers. Despite challenges like limited funding, piracy, and distribution issues, Nollywood continues to evolve, attracting international partnerships and gaining recognition at global film festivals

Population Pyramid

Nigeria's demographics have been undergoing significant changes over the past few decades, with a rapidly growing population that is expected to surpass 400 million by 2050. The country has one of the highest birth rates in the world, contributing to a youthful population, with over 40% of Nigerians being under the age of 15

Urbanization

is also a key demographic shift, as an increasing number of Nigerians migrate from rural areas to cities in search of better economic opportunities, leading to the growth of megacities like Lagos and Abuja