Anatomy midterm 😭

anatomy vs physiology

anatomy- study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts.

physiology- study of how the body and its parts work together

levels of structural organization

• atoms:combined to form molecules

• cells: smallest unit of all living things

• tissue: consists of similar cells with common functions

• organ level: composed of two or more tissue types to perform a specific function

• organ system: group of organs that cooperate to accomplish a common purpose

• organismal: all 11 body systems make up and organism

maintaining boundaries

• skin separates insides from outsides

• rib cage, diaphragm, intestin, blood vessels, skull

movement

• locomotion: skeletal muscles

• movement of substance: blood, hormones, O2, food/poop

Responsiveness/ Irritability

ability to sense change and react. How nervous systems react in the body

digestion

breakdown and absorption of nutrients

metabolism

• relies on digestive and respiratory

• chemical reactions within the body that produce energy

• breaks down complex substances and puts together simpler ones

• regulated by hormones (endocrine)

excretion

• eliminating waste from metabolic reactions

• urinary, digestive respiratory, integumentary (sweat)

reproduction

• produces future generations (offspring)

• ovaries and testes

• fertilized egg= zygote

growth

increase cell size and number of cells

survival needs

1. Nutrients (carbs, proteins, fats, vitamins/minerals)

2. oxygen

3. water

4. body temperature

5. atmospheric pressure

homeostasis

the bodies ability to maintain relatively internal conditions although the outside world is changing

Homeostatic controls

• receptors: responds to changes in the environment (stimuli), sends information to the control center along the afferent pathway

• Control center: (brain) analyzes info and determines appropriate response (sends down effector pathway)

• Effectors: carries out the response as directed by the control center (muscle or gland)

negative feedback mechanism

• works like human thermostat

• most common

• regulates heart rate and blood pressure to make sure that are at a normal rate

positive feedback mechanisms

• rare in human body

• reaction occurs at a fast rate

• increases the original stimulus to push variable further

• blood clotting and giving birth

superior/ inferior

above/below

anterior/posterior

towards front/ towards back

ventral/ dorsal

front of animals/ back of animals

cranial/ caudal

towards head/ towards tail

proximal/ distal

closer to point of attachment/ further from point of attachment

specific to appendages

medial/ lateral

closer to midline/ further from midline

superficial/ deep

close to body’s surface/ further from body’s surface

sagittal plane

coronal (frontal) plane

transverse plane

section vs. plane

plane=equal cut of body into sections

sections= unequally cut section of body

oral

mouth

orbital

bony eye socket

buccal

cheek

cervical

neck

acromial

top of shoulders

thoracic

chest

axillary

armpit

mammary

breast

brachial

upper arms

antebrachial

forearm

antecubital

front of elbow

carpals

wrists

abdominal

in between diaphragm and hips

inguinal

where thigh meets trunk

femoral

thigh

pubic

pubic bone region

patella

knee

tarsal

ankle

pedal

foot

digital

fingers/ toes

otic

ear

nasal

nose

palmar

palm of hand

crural

shin

coxal

hip

pectoral

upper chest

sternal

sternum

mental

chin

frontal

forehead

umbilical

belly button

cephalic

the whole head

deltoid

curve of shoulder

scapular

shoulder blades

olecranal

back of elbow

lumbar

lower back

gluteal

butt

popliteal

back of knee

sural

calf

calcaneal

heal

plantar

bottom of foot

cubital

elbow

dorsum

whole back

manus

whole hand

fibular

lateral part of lower leg

ipsilateral

same side of body

contralateral

opposite side of body

abdominal regions

simple squamous function

• filtration

• diffusion

simple cuboidal and simple columnar function

• absorption

• secretion

pseudostratified columnar function

• propulsion

stratified squamous function

• protection

transitional function

• stretching

four types of tissues

• epithelial

• muscle

• connective

• nervous

simple cuboidal

• single layer of cube like cells

• small glands and their ducts

• kidney tubules, covers the ovaries, salivary glands

apical layer

top of tissue

basal layer

bottom of tissue

simple columnar

• single layer of tall cells

• often includes mucus producing goblet cells

• lines most of digestive tract, gallbladder, uterus, and uterine tubes

• small bronchi and bronchioles

simple squamous

• single layer of flat cells

• usually forms membranes

• lines body cavities

• lines lungs and circulatory organs and ventral body cavities

• forms serous membranes

pseudostratified columnar

• single layer but some cells are shorter than others

• often looks like a double layer of cells

• ciliated in much of respiratory tracts

• nonciliated lines male reproductive tracts

stratified squamous

• basal surface has cubed shaped cells

• cells of apical surface are flattened

• found as a protective covering where friction is common

• skin/ mouth/ esophagus

stratified cuboidal

• two layers of cube cells

• found in ducts of large glands and ovarian follicles

stratified columnar

• surface cells are columnar, cells underneath vary in size and shape

• rare in body

• male urethra/ parotid gland

transitional epithelium

• shape of cell depends upon amount of stretching

• lines organs of the urinary system (bladder)

endocrine glands

• ductless since secretion diffuse into blood vessels

• all secretions are hormones

exocrine glands

• secretion empty through duct to the epithelial surface

• sweat / oil glands

main functions of connective tissue

• transportation

• protection

• insulation

• storage of energy reserve

variations in blood supply

• some well vascularized (blood vessels)

• some poor blood supply (tendons) or avascular (cartilage)

extracellular matrix (ECM)

• non-living portion of tissue

• majority of tissue volume

• determines specialized functions

Ground substance (ECM)

• clear, colorless, viscous

• fills space between cells and slows movement of pathogens

• can be solid, gelatinous, or liquid

Fibers (ECM)

• made by cells

• three types: collagen fibers (internal fibers & strongest), elastic fibers, reticular fibers

loose vs dense CT

Loose: more ground substance, less fibers (Adipose tissue)

Dense: more fibers, less ground substance (Tendons)

fibroblasts

inmiture fiber cells

macrophages

cell eaters (phagocytic) consumes anything foreign

adipocytes

fat cells