Key Concepts in American Government and Politics

Great Compromise

An agreement combining the Virginia Plan and New Jersey Plan, creating a bicameral legislature with a Senate and House.

Virginia Plan

Proposed representation based on population; favored by large states.

NJ Plan

Proposed equal representation for each state; favored by small states.

Elastic Clause

Grants Congress implied powers to pass all laws 'necessary and proper' for executing its enumerated powers.

Incorporation

The process by which the Bill of Rights was applied to the states through the 14th Amendment.

Shays' Rebellion

A 1786 uprising highlighting weaknesses in the Articles of Confederation, prompting calls for a stronger federal government.

Direct Democracy

A system where citizens vote directly on laws and policies.

Representative Democracy

A system where citizens elect officials to make laws on their behalf.

Straight Ticket Voting

Voting exclusively for one party's candidates across all races.

Split Ticket Voting

Voting for candidates from different parties in the same election.

Open Primary

A primary election where voters can choose any party's ballot, regardless of party affiliation.

Closed Primary

A primary election where only registered party members may vote.

Runoff Primary

A second election held when no candidate wins a majority in the first.

Winner-Take-All System

An electoral system where the highest vote-getter wins all the representation or delegates.

Two Party System

A political system dominated by two major parties, typically Democrats and Republicans in the U.S.

Soft vs Hard Money

Soft money is unregulated party-building funds; hard money is tightly regulated and given directly to candidates.

Independent Expenditures

Political spending by individuals or groups not coordinated with a candidate's campaign.

Campaign Contributions

Money given directly to political candidates, subject to limits.

PACs vs Super PACs

PACs give limited contributions directly to candidates; Super PACs make unlimited independent expenditures.

FEC Cases

Legal challenges interpreting campaign finance law, such as Buckley v. Valeo and Citizens United.

Buckley v. Valeo

Ruled that candidates can spend unlimited money on their own campaigns.

Citizens United v. FEC

Allowed unlimited independent spending by corporations and unions in elections.

Electioneering

Activities (like ads or rallies) aimed at influencing the outcome of an election.

Front-Loaded Campaign

A campaign strategy focusing on early primaries and caucuses to gain momentum.

Conference Committee

Temporary, resolves differences in House and Senate versions of a bill.

Joint Committee

Includes members from both chambers, handles specific policy areas.

Super Committee

A temporary bipartisan committee created to address deficit reduction.

Standing Committee

Permanent, specialized legislative panels in each chamber.

Select Committee

Temporary, formed for a specific investigation or issue.

Committee Chairperson

A member of the majority party who leads a committee.

Speaker of the House

Leader of the House, second in presidential succession after the Vice President.

Senate Majority Leader

Head of the majority party in the Senate, controls legislative agenda.

Speaker Pro Tem

A temporary presiding officer in the House when the Speaker is absent.

Party Whip

Ensures party discipline and counts votes.

Length of Terms

House members serve 2 years; Senators serve 6 years.

Germane

Refers to whether an amendment is relevant to the subject of the bill.

Pigeonhole

When a committee sets aside a bill and refuses to consider it.

Motion to Table

A procedural vote to set a matter aside, effectively killing it.

Joint Resolution

A legislative measure requiring approval from both chambers and the president.

Cloture

A Senate procedure to end debate (like a filibuster), requiring 60 votes.

Line Item Veto

Power to veto specific parts of a bill (ruled unconstitutional for the president).

Appropriations Bill

Legislation that authorizes government spending.

Unfunded Mandate

A federal requirement imposed on states without financial support.

Funded Mandate

A federal directive accompanied by funding to help states comply.

Block Grant

Federal money given to states with broad discretion on how it's spent.

Categorical Grant

Federal funds restricted to specific purposes with strict guidelines.

Devolution

The transfer of power from the federal government to state or local governments.

Proportional State

A concept in federalism where states have influence based on population (e.g., House representation).

Reapportionment

Redistributing House seats based on population changes after the census.

Redistricting

Redrawing district lines within a state, often done by state legislatures.

Partisanship

Strong allegiance to one's political party, often leading to polarization.

Lemon Test

A standard from Lemon v. Kurtzman to determine if a law violates the Establishment Clause.

Class Action Lawsuit

A legal case filed by one party on behalf of a larger group with similar claims.

Litmus Test

An ideological purity test used in judicial nominations.

FOIA (Freedom of Information Act)

Allows public access to federal government records.

Office of Management and Budget (OMB)

Executive agency that assists the president in preparing the federal budget.

Discretionary Spending

Spending that is negotiated through the annual budget process (e.g., defense, education).

Red Tape

Excessive bureaucracy or adherence to rules, causing delays and inefficiency.

Patronage

Hiring based on political connections rather than merit.

Merit System

Employment system based on qualifications and competitive exams.

Pendleton Act

1883 law establishing the federal merit system for hiring government workers.

Fiscal Policy

Government use of taxation and spending to influence the economy.

Monetary Policy

Central bank actions (like interest rate changes) to control the money supply.

Keynesian Economics

Advocates for government intervention to stabilize the economy during recessions.

Recessionist Policy

Government efforts to reduce the effects of an economic downturn.

Surplus-Deficit Balance

Describes whether government revenues exceed (surplus) or fall short of (deficit) spending.

Political Socialization

The process by which individuals form their political beliefs, often influenced by family, media, and education.

Political Culture

The shared beliefs, values, and norms about how political processes should operate.

Pluralism

A theory of democracy that emphasizes the role of diverse and competing interest groups in influencing public policy, where no single group dominates and compromise is possible.

Hyperpluralism

A more critical theory suggesting that too many strong interest groups compete for influence, leading to policy gridlock, contradictory laws, or government inaction because leaders try to appease everyone.

Elitism

A theory that a small, wealthy elite holds most power regardless of elections.