Overview

The Elizabethan Age, spanning from 1558 to 1603, is one of the most iconic periods in English history. It is named after Queen Elizabeth I, the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. This era witnessed significant developments in politics, culture, exploration, and the arts.

Early Life of Queen Elizabeth I

September 7, 1533

Elizabeth was born in Greenwich, England on September 7, 1533 to her father Tudor King Henry VIII and her mother, Anne Boleyn (Henry’s second wife). She was born in wedlock to survive infancy.

Elizabeth was the heir presumptive to the English throne which led to her elder half-sister Mary to lose her position as a legitimate heir when Henry annulled his marriage to Mary’s mother, Catherine of Aragon, in order to marry Anne Boleyn with the intent to sire a male heir and ensure the Tudor succession.

The king’s ardent hope was that Anne Boleyn would give birth to a male heir, so the birth of Elizabeth is a bitter disappointment to him.

May 19, 1536

Elizabeth was two years and eight months old when her mother, Anne Boleyn was accused of infidelity and treason, and Henry VIII put her to death at the Tower of London. Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and deprived of her place in the royal succession.

A few days after Anne Boleyn’s execution, Henry VIII married Jane Seymour. She then gave birth to their son, Edward and died.

Edward, was the undisputed heir apparent to the throne.

1547

Upon Henry’s death on January 28, Edward succeeds to the throne as Edward VI. He became the king at the age of nine

As a result of his youth, the government is run by regents during his reign.

Both Elizabeth and Edward are brought up as followers of the Church of England, while their half-sister Mary is brought up as a Roman Catholic.

1553 - 1554

Edward VI dies on July 6, 1553 at the age of 15. His will ignored the Succession to the Crown Act 1543, excluded both Mary and Elizabeth from the succession, and instead declared as his heir Lady Jane Grey, granddaughter of Henry VIII's younger sister Mary Tudor, Queen of France.

Mary becomes Queen and restores Roman Catholicism as England’s state religion.

Mary, a devoted Catholic, was determined to kill the Protestant faith in which Elizabeth had been schooled, so she commanded that everyone attend Catholic Mass; Elizabeth had to publicly conform.

Mary suspects Elizabeth of plotting with the Protestants to gain the throne and has her imprisoned in the Tower of London in 1554. Elizabeth fervently protested her innocence

Mary I was nicknamed “Bloody Mary” because of her harsh treatment of Protestants in England.

There were no conclusive evidences of treason by Elizabeth emerges, and she is released after two months.

Accession

1558

By October 1558, Elizabeth was already making plans for her government.

Mary recognized Elizabeth as her heir on 6 November 1558, and Elizabeth became queen on November 17, 1558, at the age of 25 years old following the death of her sister Mary I.

As her royal entry through the city on the night of coronation ceremony, she was warmly welcomed by the citizens and greeted by orations and pageants, most with a strong Protestant flavour.

Her reign marked the beginning of the Elizabethan era.

Her cousin, Mary Stuart (Catholic Queen of Scotland) - Mary, Queen of Scots is next in line to the throne.

Marriage

From the start of Elizabeth's reign it was expected that she would marry, and the question arose to whom.

Although she received many offers, she never married and remained childless; Although she had many suitors and was involved in diplomatic negotiations through potential marriage alliances, Elizabeth I chose to remain single. Her decision not to marry was influenced by various factors, including political considerations, concerns about maintaining her independence and authority, and the traumatic experiences of her family, especially the tumultuous marriages and divorces of her parents, Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn.

Elizabeth I was often referred to as the "Virgin Queen" or the "Gloriana" because of her decision not to marry. Despite her unmarried status, Queen Elizabeth I was a highly successful monarch, known for her political acumen, diplomacy, and patronage of the arts. Her reign is often considered a golden age in English history

Elizabethan Religious Settlement

1559

Elizabeth was a Protestant, but kept the Catholic symbols such as, crucifix, the use of vestments, the sign of the cross, and the elevation of the host during communion, showing a willingness to accommodate Catholic practices. She would not tolerate the Puritans, who were pushing for far-reaching reforms.

As a result, the Parliament of 1559 started to legislate for a church based on the Protestant settlement of Edward VI, with the monarch as its head, but with many Catholic elements, such as vestments.

The House of Commons (Lower House of Parliament of England) strongly opposed the proposal, however, the bill of supremacy met opposition in the House of Lords (Upper House of the Parliament of United Kingdom) specifically from the bishops.

This enabled supporters amongst peers to outvote the bishops and conservative peers.

However, Elizabeth was forced to accept the title of Supreme Governor of the Church of England (Head of the Church) rather than the more contentious title of Supreme Head (title that was created for Henry VIII) which many thought unacceptable for a woman to bear.

The new Act of Supremacy became a law on May 8, 1559, which stated that Elizabeth was the Head of the Church. All public officials were forced to swear an oath of loyalty to the monarch as the supreme governor or risk disqualification from office; the heresy laws were repealed, to avoid a repeat of the persecution of dissenters by Mary.

At the same time, a new Act of Uniformity was established, which set out expectation for church appearances and church services. They also made use of the 1559 Book of Common Prayer also known as the Elizabethan Prayer Book (an adapted version of the 1552 prayer book) which served as the official liturgical book of the Church of the England throughout Elizabethan Era.

Treaty of Cateau - Cambresis

1559

It was signed on April 3, 1559, and it marked the end of the Italian Wars (also known as the Habsburg-Valois Wars) that had been ongoing for over 60 years.

The major parties involved in the treaty were the Habsburgs (led by Philip II of Spain) and the Valois (led by Henry II of France).

This peace treaty between England and France ended the war inherited by Elizabeth from her half-sister Mary I, who went to war alongside her Spanish husband Philip II in 1557.

Humiliatingly, Elizabeth had to confirm the loss of Calais, which had been an English possession since 1347.

France agreed to cede several territories to the Spanish Habsburgs, including the Duchy of Savoy and the regions of Piedmont and Corsica.

The French also relinquished control over several Italian territories, including the city of Calais, which had been under English control.

The treaty brought an end to the long-standing conflict in Italy between the Habsburgs and the Valois. This conflict had involved various European powers and had been marked by shifting alliances.

As part of the treaty, two marriage alliances were arranged: Elisabeth of Valois, the daughter of Henry II of France, married Philip II of Spain; Margaret of Parma, the daughter of Charles V (Philip's father), married Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy.

The treaty provided for the exchange of prisoners and hostages, with both sides agreeing to release captives.

Mary, Queen of Scots

Mary Stuart and Elizabeth I were cousins, both being granddaughters of Margaret Tudor, the sister of Henry VIII of England. Their relationship was complicated by religious and political differences. Mary was a devout Catholic, while Elizabeth was Protestant.

Mary's first marriage to Francis II of France in 1558 aligned her with the powerful Catholic nation. However, Francis's death in 1560 left Mary a widow and returned her to Scotland.

1560

Elizabeth's initial stance towards Scotland was to fight the French influence there. She was concerned that the French intended to invade England and impose her Catholic relative Mary, Queen of Scots, on the throne. Mary, the granddaughter of Henry VIII's elder sister Margaret, was widely regarded as the successor to the English crown.

Elizabeth was persuaded to send a force into Scotland to aid the Protestant rebels, and though the campaign was inept, the resulting Treaty of Edinburgh of July 1560 removed the French threat in the North.

Treaty of Edinburgh

This established a new Anglo-Scottish peace and also reconfirmed the agreement at Cateau-Cambresis. Elizabeth was eager to nullify the threat of the Auld Alliance (Scotland and France), which had been further reinforced by the marriage of Mary, Queen of Scots and French King Francis II.

The treaty also stated that Mary would give up her claim to the English throne, although this was not formally agreed by Mary.

It was actually a series of three separate treaties negotiated between England and Scotland during the 16th century. The most notable of these treaties is the Treaty of Edinburgh of 1560, which played a significant role in the complex web of political and religious alliances during that period.

It was a pivotal agreement that ended the conflict known as the Rough Wooing, a series of military campaigns conducted by the English Crown to force a marriage between Mary, Queen of Scots, and Henry VIII's son, Edward.

1561

When Mary returned to Scotland in 1561 to take up the reins of power, the country had an established Protestant church and was run by a council of Protestant nobles supported by Elizabeth. Mary refused to ratify the treaty. Her reign was marked by religious tensions, and she struggled to maintain stability.

1563

Elizabeth proposed her own suitor, Robert Dudley, as a husband for Mary, without asking either of the two people concerned. Both proved unenthusiastic.

1565

Mary married Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, who pursued his own claims to the English crown. Mary's marriage was the beginning of a sequence of mistakes of judgment that led to the victory of the Scottish Protestants and Elizabeth.

1567

Darnley immediately grew unpopular, and he was assassinated in February 1567 by conspirators definitely led by James Hepburn, the 4th Earl of Bothwell. Mary married Bothwell on May 15, 1567, raising accusations that she was involved in her husband's death. Elizabeth questioned Mary about their marriage.

These actions quickly led to Mary's downfall and incarceration at Lochleven Castle. The Scottish nobles persuaded Elizabeth to resign in favour of her son James VI, born in 1566. James was transferred to Stirling Castle and reared as a Protestant.

1568

Mary fled in 1568, but after being defeated at Langside, she went to England, where she had previously been promised of Elizabeth's support. Elizabeth's immediate inclination was to reinstate her fellow monarch, but she and her council opted to be cautious. Rather than risk returning Mary to Scotland with an English army or sending her to France and the Catholic foes of England, they hosted her in England. She was imprisoned for the next nineteen years.

1569

Revolt of the Northern Earls

The Revolt of the Northern Earls of 1569 (often called The Rising of the North) was led by two influential Catholic families – the Percys and the Nevilles –  Charles Neville, 6th Earl of Westmorland, and Thomas Percy, 7th Earl of Northumberland. The revolt was an attempt to depose the Protestant Queen Elizabeth I of England and replace her with the Catholic Mary Queen of Scots. On the 14th of November, 1569, the two Earls occupied the city of Durham and called on all Catholics to take up arms in defense of their true faith. They held Catholic mass in Durham Cathedral and destroyed Protestant prayers books.

Around 6,000 rebels, including forces from Scotland, marched in support of the Earls. They besieged and captured Barnard Castle and took the port of Hartlepool. However, the revolt was quickly quashed by the forces of Elizabeth I, led by the Earl of Sussex. The rebel Earls fled to Scotland. The earl of Northumberland was captured and executed in 1572.

1570

Pope Pius V excommunicates Elizabeth from the Catholic Church

In the belief that the revolt had been successful, Pope Pius V issued a bull in 1570, titled Regnans in Excelsis, which declared, Catholics who obeyed Queen Elizabeth’s orders were threatened with excommunication. The papal bull provoked legislative initiatives against Catholics by Parliament, which were, however, mitigated by Elizabeth's intervention.

1571

The Ridolfi Plot

Roberto Ridolfi was a spy of the Pope. He plotted a Spanish invasion of England, which would involve the killing of Elizabeth and the placing of Mary, Queen of Scots on the throne.

As with the 1569 plot, Mary, Queen of Scots would marry the Duke of Norfolk; He was killed in 1572.

The plot was uncovered whilst Ridolfi was abroad (he never returned). Mary was spared.

1586

The Babington Plot

Philip II and the Pope supported the plot that would involve the invasion of England by the Duke of Guise. The invasion would include the murder of Elizabeth and the placing of Mary, Queen of Scots on the throne.

Anthony Babington, an English Catholic, wrote to Mary about the plot; the plot was uncovered by Sir Francis Walsingham, who intercepted and read Babington’s letters to Mary.

1587

Mary, Queen of Scots, is executed

During the 19 years that Mary Stuart is Elizabeth’s prisoner, some English Catholics form plots to liberate her and to place her on the throne of England.

Mary’s clear awareness and support of the Babington plot led to her being sentenced to death in October 1586. Elizabeth, however, did not sign the death warrant until February 1587 and Mary was beheaded.

Babington and other known plotters were hanged, drawn and quartered.

Wars and Overseas Trade

Dutch Revolt

1566

Also known as the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648)

The Netherlands had been part of the Spanish empire since the 1550s. However, the Dutch had always governed themselves.

Philip II’s decision to reorganize the Dutch government and church angered both the Dutch Catholics and the Protestants. They began to revolt against the Spanish.

Genoese Loan

1568

Italian bankers from Genoa had lent Philip II money to fund his campaign in the Netherlands (which was trying to put down the Dutch Revolt).

Crucially, when the Spanish ships docked in English ports, the gold was seized by Elizabeth.

This increased tension between England and Spain.

The Spanish Fury

1576

Spain’s forces in the Netherlands mutinied (as they hadn’t been paid by the now bankrupt Spanish government).

This led to a rampage of Spanish soldiers and the sacking of Antwerp.

Pacification of Ghent

1576

The Spanish Fury united both the Dutch Catholics and Protestants, who demanded in response to the violence:

1. The expulsion of all Spanish troops from the Netherlands.

2. Political freedom and;

3. An end to religious hostility via the Spanish Inquisition.

Francis Drake circumnavigates the world

1577 - 1580

Elizabeth encourages exploration and voyages of discovery.

She provides financial support for Admiral Francis Drake’s circumnavigation of the globe (1577–80).

Drake was the first English person to achieve this (and the second person in history at the time).

It was estimated that Drake returned with approximately £400,000 of Spanish treasure from regular raids of Spanish ports in South America.

In the 1580s, Walter Raleigh, one of her favorites at court, sends out several expeditions in an effort to establish an English colony in North America.

The name Virginia—in honor of the Virgin Queen, as Elizabeth is called—is given to the area explored in 1584 during one of these expeditions.

Francis Drake is knighted on the Golden Hind

1580

This was an important symbolic gesture, which angered Philip II. He saw Drake as a pirate and therefore deemed Elizabeth’s act as deliberately provocative.

Treaty of Joinville

1584

The French Catholic League signed this treaty with Philip II of Spain. The aim was to rid France of heresy (Protestantism).

This meant two of the most powerful European nations were now united against Protestantism, placing Elizabeth in a precarious position.

Treaty of Nonsuch

1585

This significantly committed Elizabeth to support the Dutch rebels directly against the Spanish. She pledged to finance an army of 7,400 English troops and placed Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, in charge of them. Essentially, this meant England and Spain were now at war.

All Catholic priests are ordered to leave the country

With the seemingly imminent war between Spain only a matter of time, Elizabeth was determined to rid England of the “enemy within”.

Catholic priests were ordered to leave so as not to influence the English Catholics with divided loyalties.

First English colony in Virginia established

This was viewed as significant because it was seen as a means to increase trade, to expand Protestantism and to use the area as a base for attacks on Spanish colonies in the New World. In this sense, the colonization of Virginia should be understood in relation to the wider conflict with Spain.

Colony is established at Roanoke

Despite the failure of 1585, another attempt to colonize Virginia took place.

Many colonists this time were poverty-stricken Londoners (it was felt they would be used to hard work and would therefore be happy to work for a new life in the New World).

Working for the British, Native American Manteo was placed in charge of the expedition by Sir Walter Raleigh. Native American hostility occurred from the start, however John White (another leading colonist) sailed back to England to report on the problems being experienced.

The ‘singeing of the King’s beard’

Francis Drake led an attack at Cadiz on the Spanish fleet, who were preparing for an invasion of the English. The attack was a success. 30 ships were destroyed, as well as lots of supplies. This delayed the Spanish attack and gave the English more time to prepare (hence the attempted invasion of the Armada one year later in 1588).

Treaty of Berwick

1586

Elizabeth and James VI agreed to maintain Protestantism as their respective countries’ religion. James also pledged to help Elizabeth if invaded. The treaty essentially allowed Elizabeth to focus on developing events in the Netherlands and not worry about protecting her northern border.

Surviving colonists abandon Virginia and return to England

The failure of the colonization was due to:

• The resistance of the Native Americans;

• Conflict amongst the English settlers (who collectively had the wrong mix of skills to make the settlement a real success);

• The loss of supplies via the damage incurred on The Tiger and the fact that the voyage set off too late for crops to be planted (causing dependence on the rightfully suspicious Native Americans).

Failure of the Armada

1588

Catholic King, Philip II of Spain assembles a great fleet of ships called the Armada to attack England.

The Armada sails into the English Channel in July 1588. On July 31^st during the Battle of Plymouth – two Spanish ships were captured. The English ships that meet them are smaller but possess superior speed and maneuverability.

In the fighting that ensues the English inflict terrible losses on their enemy. The naval victory over the Spanish Armada is a high point of Elizabeth’s reign.

On August 3^rd - 4^th, the Spanish ships were outgunned and forced to move to Calais in France.

On August 8^th: during the Battle of Gravelines – fireships caused the Spanish fleet to scatter. They never met with the Duke of Parma and were forced to sail around the British Isles. Most of the fleet was then destroyed by storms.

English sailors land at Roanoke to find it abandoned

1590

John White led another group to Roanoke, 3 years after the attempt to colonize it. However, the settlement was abandoned and no trace of the colonists was ever found.

Later Years

After War

The period after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 brought new difficulties for Elizabeth that lasted until the end of her reign.

The conflicts with Spain and in Ireland dragged on, the tax burden grew heavier, and the economy was hit by poor harvests and the cost of war. Prices rose and the standard of living fell.

During this time, repression of Catholics intensified, and Elizabeth authorized commissions in 1591 to interrogate and monitor Catholic householders. To maintain the illusion of peace and prosperity, she increasingly relied on internal spies and propaganda.

During the last years of her reign, Elizabeth came to rely on the granting of monopolies as a cost-free system of patronage, rather than asking Parliament for more subsidies in a time of war. The practice soon led to price-fixing, the enrichment of courtiers at the public's expense, and widespread resentment. This culminated in agitation in the House of Commons during the parliament of 1601.

The rise of Golden Age in English Literature

This same period of economic and political uncertainty, however, produced an unsurpassed literary flowering in England.

England was experiencing the effects of the Renaissance during the Elizabethan Age, which began as a movement in Italy and then swept the rest of Europe in the 16th century.

It inspired creators of the time to focus on human condition and individualism

Led to pioneering of various forms of arts and literary styles; development of the history play or the historical drama. The first installment of Edmund Spenser’s poem The Faerie Queene (Books I–III) is published in 1590.

The second installment (Books IV–VI) appears in 1596. The poem, an elaborate allegory dedicated to Queen Elizabeth, is one of the greatest long poems in the English language.

Among other great writers active during Elizabeth’s reign are Sir Philip Sidney, Christopher Marlowe and, William Shakespeare.

The construction of the Globe Theatre in 1599 marked a pinnacle in Elizabethan theater.

Elizabethan Laws and Act

Statute of Artificers

This aimed to ensure poor relief was collected. Anyone refusing to pay poor rates could be imprisoned and officials failing to organize poor relief could be fined.

It aimed to regulate labor relations and address the economic challenges faced by society during the 16th century.

This period witnessed changes in economic structures, with a transition from feudalism to a more commercial and market-oriented economy.

Emphasized the importance of apprenticeships as a means of training individuals in various trades and crafts. It sought to regulate the terms and conditions of apprenticeship agreements to ensure a skilled and disciplined workforce.

This sought to control wages by setting maximum wage rates for different occupations. Employers were required to pay workers according to the prescribed rates, and deviations could result in penalties.

It included provisions related to working hours and conditions, aiming to prevent exploitation of labor. It specified the length of the working day and sought to ensure that workers were not subjected to excessive or unfair demands.

Mechanisms for resolving disputes between employers and workers were outlined in the statute. Justices of the Peace were given the authority to adjudicate disputes and enforce the provisions of the statute.

Certain restrictions were placed on the movement of workers to prevent them from seeking better employment opportunities outside their designated areas. This was intended to maintain a stable workforce and prevent labor shortages in particular regions.

Employers who violated the provisions of the statute could face fines or other penalties. The statute aimed to enforce its regulations to ensure compliance with the established economic and labor standards.

Vagabonds Act

To counter homelessness and the begging/criminal activity that sometimes accompanied this, a law was passed that stated that, if found, vagrants were:

1. To be whipped and have a hole drilled through each ear

2. If found a second time would be imprisoned

3. Would be killed if found a third time.

However, the Act also established a national poor rate, made JPs (Justices of the Peace) keep registers of the poor and gave towns and cities the responsibility to find work for the able-bodied poor.

Poor Relief Act

This focused on dividing the poor into the able-bodied and the impotent.

JPs (Justices of the Peace) provided the able-bodied with raw materials (like wool) to make items to sell.

Those who refused this were sent to prison.

The Elizabethan Poor Law

Also known as the Act for the Relief of the Poor, was a significant piece of legislation enacted during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I in England.

It represented a comprehensive attempt to address the increasing social and economic challenges associated with poverty and destitution during the late 16th century.

The law established a system where each parish was responsible for the care of its poor residents. This was a departure from earlier practices where monasteries and local communities had assumed this responsibility.

The law distinguished between the "deserving poor" (those deemed worthy of assistance due to factors like age, illness, or disability) and the "undeserving poor" (those perceived as capable of work but unwilling to do so). Different forms of relief were provided based on the perceived deservingness of the individual.

The law authorized the creation of workhouses where able-bodied paupers could be set to work.

Apprenticeships were encouraged as a means of providing practical skills and work experience to the poor.

Death

Elizabeth dies on March 24, 1603. She is buried with great magnificence in Westminster Abbey.

Mary Stuart’s son, James VI of Scotland, succeeds Elizabeth on the English throne.

He is proclaimed James I of England