Ap Psych CRAM

Wilhelm Wundt

(Father of psychology) Opened the 1st lab

G. Stanley Hall

Opened the 1st lab in America/ 1st president of APA

Gestalt

Group things into meaningful wholes

Functionalism

(Wm James) Studied purposes of consciousness

Structuralism

(Titchener) Studied basic elements of thoughts/sensations

Psychoanalytical Approach

(Freud) Unconscious forces & childhood experiences shape personality

Evolutionary Approach

(Darwin) How behavior with survival purposes get passed on

Biological Approach

Physical & genes shape behavior

Cognitive Approach

How we take in, store, recall, and process info. how we think

Behavioral Approach

(Pavlov, Watson, Skinner) How we learn through rewards, punishments, and observation

Humanistic

(Maslow; Rogers) Reaching full potential; free will/choice

Sociocultural

How one's culture or environment shapes their behavior

Experiments

Controlled setting, cause & effect

Operational Definition

Exact definition of procedures; helps replication

Sample

Subjects selected for research study

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance to eliminate preexisting differences

Confounding Variable

Variable other than Independent(x) variable that may cause the results; not good

Experimental Group

Group exposed to treatment

Control Group

Comparison group/ placebo group

Double-Blind

Researcher and participants don't know who is in the experimental group or control group; prevent bias

Experimenter Bias

Expectations influence what psychologists record

Correlation Studies

Shows relationship between 2 variables; does NOT show causation

Positive Correlation

Both variables move in same direction; ex. the more y0u study, the higher grades you get

Negative Correlation

Inverse relationship; ex. the more you study, the less free time you have

Naturalistic Observation

Observation in the subject's natural environment

Case Study

In depth study of one subject; results not generalizable to the rest of the population

Survey

Questionnaires/ Interviews; cheap, quick, easy

Response Bias

Not understanding survey questions; social desirability (make favorable responses)

Longitudinal Studies

Follow same individuals for may years

Cross-sectional Studies

Compares different age groups at the same time

Range

Difference between the highest & lowest score

Standard Deviation

Average difference between each score and the mean- small SD- scores close to mean; large SD- scores farther from mean

Statistical Significance

How likely the results of an experiment are due to chance (

Ethics

To prevent psychological or physical harm; informed consent, debriefing, confidentiality, right to withdraw from experiment; animals must be treated humanely

Neurons

Nerve cells

Dendrites

Receives info. from other neurons

Axon

Sends info. away to other neurons; covered by myelin sheath which speeds transmission

Action Potencial

When a neuron fires (depolarization)

Refractory Period

Rest and recharging period after firing

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers released in the synapse (gap between neurons) Ex. *Acetylcholine-memory & muscles
*Dopamine-excess linked to schizophrenia
*Serotonin-mood, sleep
*Norepinephrine-mood, alertness

Excitatory Potencial

Makes neuron more likely to fire

Inhibitory Potencial

Makes neurons less likely to fire

Central Nervous System

Brain and spinal chord

Medulla

Breathing

Pons

Sleeping & dreaming

Cerebellum

Fine motor movements & balence

Thalamus

Relays sensory information

Hypothalamus

Eating, drinking, body temp., sex

Hippocampus

Formation of new memories

Reticular Activating Syndrome

Arousal/body activation

4 Lobes of Cerebral Cortex (FPOT)

1. Frontal- higer-order thinking, decision making, motor movement
2. Parietal lobe- sensory systems
3. Occipital lobe- vision
4. Temporal lobe- hearing

Wernicke's Area

Understanding language (Carl Wernicke)

Broca's Area

Spoken language (Paul Broca)

(MRI) Magnetic Resonance Scanning

Using radio waves and magnetic fields to see detailed 3-D images of the brain

(FMRI) Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Similar to MRI, but shows structures that are active

(PET Scan) Positron Emission Tomography

Glucose inserted to show color coded images of brain activity

CAT Scan

X-rays of the brain; least expensive

EEG

Measures brain wave activity, sleep research

Cornea

Transparent protective covering

Lens

Bends light rays into the retina

Retina

Nerves lining back of the eye

Rods

sides of eye; black and white vision

Cones

Center, color vision, vision acuity

Optic Nerve

Carries visual information to the brain

Blind Spot

No photoreceptors, so no vision

Trichromatic Theory (Young-Helmsholtz)

3 types of cones (blue, green, red) that produce color vision

Opponent Process Theory

3 pairs of cones (red/green, blue/yellow, black, white) When one color is stimulated, another color is inhibited

Outer Ear (pinna)

Collects sound waves and channels it through the ear canal

Tympanic Membrane (ear drum)

Vibrates as sound hits it

Cochlea

Contains hair cells that bend as sound reaches it

Auditory nerve

Takes nerve cells to the brain (temporal lobe)

Place Theory

Pitch is determined by the location in the cochlea that is stimulated

Frequency Theory

Low pitched sounds cause hair cells to fire at the same frequency (pitch)

Cochlear Implants

Can restore some hearing for nerve damage

Taste (gustation)

Taste buds (sensory receptors); taste sensations- sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami

Smell (olfaction)

olfactory bulb delivers smell messages to the brain

Touch

sensations-pressure, pain, temperature

Gate Control Theory

Centered in spinal chord; competing signals such as rubbing can temporarily reduce pain

Vestibular Sense

Sense of balance located in semi-circular canals in inner ear

Kinesthetic Sense

Receptors in muscles and tendons give us information on placement of limbs

Weber's Law

The amount of change needed for a just noticeable difference (JND) is a constant proportion of the original stimulus intensity

Absolute Threshold

The least amount of stimulus that is sensed (criteria 50% of the time)

Bottom-up Processing

Starts with the smaller items first to recognize the context; sensation

Top-down Perception

Using perceptual processes to understand the whole picture; perception

Constancy

Recognize that an item stays the same despite temporary changes in appearance (ex. brightness constancy)

Phi Phenomenon

Max Wertheimer noted that rapid sequences of perceptual events, such as rows of flashing lights, create the illusion of motion even when there is none. This is known as the phi phenomenon. Motion pictures are based upon this principle, with a series of still images appearing in rapid succession to form a seamless visual experience.

Gestalt Psychology (perception)

The whole is different than the sum of its parts

Figure-ground

The tendency to view certain figures of a scene as the figure and the rest as a background

Proximity

Things near each other are related

Similarity

Things that resemble each other are related

Continuity

Things that form a flowing line are viewed as continuous instead of broken up

Closure

Complete figures that are incomplete

Monocular Cues

Enable us to perceive depth

Relative Size

Closer items appear bigger

Relative Height

Things higher on the plane appear farther away

Linear Perspective

Parallel lines seem to converge as distance increases

Interposition

Something that blocks another item is perceived as being closer

Relative Motion

Closer objects appear to move faster

Texture Gradient

Farther objects display less detail

Stages of Sleep

Stage 1- light sleep; alpha waves
Stage 2- sleep spindles
Stage 3- initial stage of delta waves
Stage 4- delta waves, deepest sleep
REM Sleep- (rapid eye movement) 90% of dreams