BIOL2140 Exam 1 Study Guide

solid, liquid, gas

states of matter

oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen

what four elements make up 96% of the body?

calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, magnesium, iodine, iron

what are the elements that made up the remaining 4% of the body?

protons

positively charged subatomic particles

neutrons

uncharged subatomic particles

electrons

negatively charged subatomic particles

neutral

atoms are electrically __________________

equal

number of protons and electrons in an atom is:

ions

atoms that have lost or gained electrons

cations

atoms that have lost electrons

anions

atoms that have gained electrons

atomic mass

sum of the protons and neutrons contained in an atom’s nucleus

electrons

what subatomic particles determine an atom’s chemical behavior?

isotopes

atoms of the same element with the same number of protons and same atomic number but differ ONLY in the number of neutrons

atomic weight

average mass of all an atom’s isotopes

radioisotopes

heavier isotopes of certain atoms; very unstable and decompose to a more stable isotope; useful in PET scans

radioactivity

process of spontaneous atomic decay

molecule

two or more atoms of the same elements combined chemically

compound

two or more atoms of different elements combined chemically to form a molecule of a compound

mixtures

two or more components that are physically intermixed but don’t form bonds between components

solutions

homogenous mixtures

colloids

heterogeneous mixtures; appear cloudy or milky, form gel type solutions

suspensions

heterogeneous mixtures that contain visible particles that settle out; appear with distinct layers

chemically inert

atoms with full valence shells are _________________-

valence shell

chemically reactivity or bonding involves only interactions between electrons in the:

ionic bonds

bonds in which electrons are completely transferred from one atom to another

covalent bonds

bonds in which atoms become stable through shared electrons

nonpolar covalent bonds

covalent bonds in which electrons are shared equally between the atoms of the molecule

polar covalent bonds

covalent bonds in which electrons are not shared equally between the atoms of the molecule

hydrogen bonds

weak chemical bonds that form when hydrogen from one polar molecule is attracted to the negative portion of another polar molecule

synthesis reaction

reaction in which smaller particles are bonded together to form large more complex molecules

decomposition reaction

reaction in which bonds are broken in large molecules resulting in smaller less complex molecules

exchange reaction

reaction in which bonds are both broken and formed

high heat capacity, universal solvent, chemical reactivity, cushioning

four properties of water vital to life

salts

contain cations other than H+ and anions other than OH-; easily dissociate in water, vital to many bodily functions

polymers

chainlike molecules made of many similar repeating units called monomers

dehydration synthesis

monomers are joined to form polymers through the removal of water molecules

hydrolysis

polymers are broken down into monomers through the addition of water

three fatty acids and one glycerol molecule

triglyceride building blocks

saturated fats

fats containing only single covalent bonds; chains are straight; solids at room temp

unsaturated fats

fats containing one or more double bonds causing chains to kink; liquid at room temp

trans fats

oils that have been solidified by hydrogens at double bonds

omega 3 fatty acids

polyunsaturated oils found in cold water fish and some plants

steroids

formed from four interlocking rings of carbon and hydrogen; include cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D, and some hormones; important in cell membranes, muscle tissue, metabolic processes, reproduction, and digestion

prostaglandins

eicosanoids that play a role in blood clotting, control of bp, inflammation, and labor contractions; blocked by NSAIDs

amino acids

building blocks of proteins containing an amine group (NH2), an acid group (COOH), and an R group

dehydration synthesis

bonds are formed between amino acids to form proteins through

secondary structure

repeating alpha helix coils and beta pleated sheets along the amino acid chain d/t hydrogen bonds

primary structure

long unique sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain

tertiary structure

overall 3D shape of the protein d/t interactions among R groups

Quaternary structure

two or more polypeptide chains folded together to make a functional protein

structural proteins

proteins that bind structures together and exist in body tissues

functional proteins

proteins that function as antibodies in immunity, hormones, or act as enzymes in chemical reactions

nitrogenous base, 5 carbon sugar, phosphate group

nucleic acid makeup

RNA

carries out DNAs instructions for protein synthesis; created from a template of DNA; single stranded helix; made of a ribose sugar and adenine, uracil, cytosine, and guanine

adenosine triphosphate

chemical energy used by all cells; composed of adenine, a ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups

chemical work

one way ATP performs work by providing the energy for chemical reactions

transport work

one way ATP performs work by providing the energy for the transport of some molecules across the cell membrane

mechanical work

one way ATP performs work by providing the energy for muscle contraction

cell

structural and functional unit of life

phospholipids, glycolipids, cholesterol

the plasma membrane is made of 75% _____________, 5% _________________, and 20%_________________

integral proteins

proteins firmly inserted in the plasma membrane of cells; contain hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions

peripheral proteins

membrane proteins loosely attached to integral proteins; include filaments on the intracellular surface for membrane support

transport, receptors for signal transduction, attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix, enzymatic activity, intercellular joining, and cell-cell recognition

6 functions of membrane proteins

glycolax

membrane lipids and proteins with carbohydrate chain attachment; every cell type has a different pattern of sugars that allows the immune system to recognize “self” from “non self”; cancer cells change these patterns continuously

tight junctions

impermeable junctions in the cell membrane that bind cells together into leakproof sheets; prevent substances from passing through the extracellular space between cells

desmosomes

anchoring junctions in plasma membranes that prevent cells from being pulled as a result of mechanical stress; created by buttonlike thickenings of adjacent plasma membranes

gap junctions

allow for communication between cells; hollow cylinders of proteins span the width of abutting membranes; allow molecules to travel directly from one cell to the other

passive transport

type of transport that allows substances to enter through the plasma membrane with no ATP by moving down its concentration gradient

active transport

this transport type occurs only in living cell membranes; ATP required to move substances through the membrane

primary active transport

energy required for this type of transport is obtained directly from ATP hydrolysis; solutes are moved against an electrochemical gradient; good example is the sodium potassium pump

secondary active transport

energy required for this type of transport is obtained indirectly from ionic gradients created by primary active transport

cyclins and cdks

DNA replication and the beginning of mitosis require:

messenger RNA

carries instructions for building a polypeptide from a gene in DNA to ribosomes in cytoplasm

ribosomal RNA

structural component of ribosomes that along with tRNA helps translate messages from mRNA

transfer RNA

binds to amino acids and pairs with bases of mRNA codons at ribosome to begin the process of protein synthesis

initiation, elongation, termination

3 phases of transcription

transcription initiation

beginning of transcription in which RNA polymerase separates DNA strands

transcription elongation

transcription phase in which RNA polymerase adds complementary nucleotides

transcription termination

transcription phase in which the termination signal indicates the “stop” of transcription

initiation, elongation, termination

phases of translation

translation initiation

first phase in translation during which a ribosomal subunit binds to initiator tRNA and mRNA to be decoded; begins with a start codon; large and small ribosomal units attach to the subunit forming a functional ribosome; by the end, tRNA is within the P site and the A site is vacant

translation elongation

second phase of translation that consists of 3 sub-steps: codon recognition, peptide bond formation, and translocation; new amino acids are added by other tRNAs as ribosome moves along mRNA

codon recognition

first step of translation elongation in which tRNA binds complementary codon in the A site

peptide bond formation

second step of translation elongation in which the amino acid of tRNA in the P site is bonded to the amino acid of tRNA in the A site

translocation

final step of translation elongation in which tRNAs move one position; from A to P and from P to E site

translation termination

final step in translation when the stop codon (either UGA, UAA, or UAG) enters the A site and signals the end of translation; protein release factor binds to the stop codon, water is added to the chain, the polypeptide chain is released and ribosomal subunits separate; mRNA degrades

ubiquitins

tag damaged or unneeded soluble proteins in cytosol

anatomy

study of structure

physiology

study of function

chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organism

levels of structural organization

maintaining boundaries, movement, responsiveness, digestion, metabolism, excretion, reproduction, growth

8 necessary life functions

integumentary system

external covering; also sweat glands, oil glands, hair, nails

protects underlying structures, synthesizes vitamin D, maintains body temperature

functions of integumentary system

muscular system

muscles; responsible for movement, posture, heat production

skeletal system

joints, bones, ligaments, cartilage

protects organs, attachments sites for muscles, formation of blood cells, stores calcium

functions. of skeletal system

nervous system

brain, spinal cord, nerves

control center, responds to internal and external changes

functions of the nervous system

nutrients, oxygen, water, normal body temperature, appropriate atmosphere pressure

five survival needs