water economics, forested watersheds

economic water demand

consumptive demand - drinking water, hygiene, sanitation

productive purposes - irrigation, industrial use, etc, production of goods/services

different types can use water of different qualities, potable or not

water supply treatment

water treatment for drinking water purposes

water distribution, treatment - needs to be pumped, delivered etc

often under central govt control, highly regulated - monopoly

how much do we pay for 1L of water in edmonton?

water tariifs - fixed cost for use, encourages lower use

then we pay additional for every 1 m3 of water, drainage fixed costs and variable per m3

wastewater fixed and variable and then total ends up about 77$/month or 0.008$/L

many places also have fixed rates instead

why is water so cheap in edmonton?

cost to produce the water doesn’t change in scarcity, doesn’t change with supply and demand - set by govt regulations

due to allocations then Epcor will always get the water

inelastic demand, access is essential and so socially cannot deny uses

its very local in nature and so water industries have a monopoly - costs only really include the infrastructure

water stress and value

southern AB among many other parts of the world are projected to experience stress by 2040

scarcity requires decisions to be made on uses and priority - knowing the value

direct value of water

present and future use by individuals, associated with consumptive and productive use

for ex household or irrigation

indirect value of water

benefits are derived from ecosystem functions - that are beneficial for humans

option value of water

value of preservation of resource, or potential future values of it even if it is not used today

existence value of water

value of an ecosystem without any links to human use or future use

bequest value of water

the value in knowing that future generations will be able to enjoy the existence of an ecosystem

millenium ecosystem assessment

value of an ecosystem services are in the context of the value they provide to human well-being, overlapping with economic value

provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting sevices are ranked based on value

provisioning services and value

food, water fibre, fuel, biochemical

applicable to direct use of water, and option values

regulating services and value

climate regulation, water and disease, purification, erosion reg, natural hazard reg, etc

applicable to indirect water values and option values

cultural services and value

spiritual, aesthetic, recreation and education

applicable to direct water use, option and non use values

habitat and supporting services and value

soil formation, primary production, nutrient cycling

values through other categories

example n. sask value according to millenium ecosystem assessment

provisioning services such as drinking water, sanitation, industrial manufacturing, and irrigation, processing

regulating such as sediment transport, flood control, GW recharge, local cooling, carbon storage, etc

cultural such as fishing, indigenous values/colonizer values, aesthetic values, ecological education, mental health

and supporting such as aquatic habitat and biodiv, downstream support to delta

values for wetland ecosystems

generally have high high ecosystem value - inherent

value of <$20 000, as determined by the cost of a simple (poor) restoration in 2014

not a value of ecosystem services or a deterrent of development

water allocations in southern alberta

closed basin, no new licenses may be issued but they can sell to willing buyer

in selling the govt may withhold 10% of transfer increased river flow

ensures economically efficient uses of water are promoted - with supply and demand dictating prices

so therefore new allocations depend on economic considerations not social

valuation techniques

when providing a dollar value to an ecosystem services, large variation no real answer

should biodiv, ecosystem services have a dollar value - perhaps aid in understanding for people who dont understand ecological impacts/science background

but changes so much with goals and who is involved

blue water - embedded virtual water

direct, clean water consumption of freshwater which is not returned to the watershed

for example use of potable water

green water - embedded virtual water

water used by soils and by plants during ag production - precipitation and irrigation

grey water - embedded virtual water

water used to deal with pollution during supply chains, the volume of freshwater it takes to assimilate pollutants and return the water back to its source

how much virtual water is in a 0.5L soft drink bottle

direct production and processing - blue and grey

indirect production like employees and sanitation - blue and grey

direct supply chain - green for sugar, blue/grey for packaging

indirect supply chain - energy, transport, infrastructure

ends up being around 200L of water, 90% from direct supply chain (green)

trade of virtual water

all products carry a water footprint, total of blue, grey, green water

global trade of goods also includes a global trade of water - many countries depend on the water use of other countries

forested watersheds

>70% of canadians source their water here, key habitat, recreational activities

quantity and quality of water from forested affected by timber harvest, site prep and planning, forest drainage, forest fertilization, wildfires, insect outbreaks, livestock grazing, urban development, construction for oil and gas

impacts on runoff generation and forest harvesting

forest harvesting leads to reduced ET and sometimes decreased capacity for infiltration, this causes increase runoff

this also changes in stream erosion and stream power increases

also differs due to regions, soil type and climate

example la reina catchment, chile

post harvesting observed a large increase in total runoff which lasted for approx 20 years before it began to decrease

wildfires and runoff

similar situation to forest harvesting, increases runoff and reduces ET

fire severity can influence the magnitude of response of ET and thus runoff

also can cause soil clogging and water repellency of surface soils which will decrease infiltration capacity and increases overland flow, peak discharge

harvesting impact on snowmelt runoff/freshet

harvesting and wildfires lead to increase and earlier runoff during freshet - less shading means faster melt, wetter soils in fall means more ice and therefore less infiltration during snowmelt

in mixed catchments the stream flow is mixed with increased and decreased area, thus can be even lower peak flow over a longer time

insect outbreaks and runoff

rapid regrowth of understory veg with increased light can reduce impact of forest die off on ET

inconclusive evidence of total runoff generation

forestry and disturbances impact water quality

physical quality like sediment load, turbidity, temp, and dissolved O2

chemical quality like nutrients - natural or fert, heavy metals with sediment, pesticides/herbicides, fire retardant, dissolved O C, pH

things such as access roads, skid trails, stream crossings, slash piles can also impact

slash piles on water quality

decomposition releases nutrients but there are no plants to take up any nutrients and so it is washed away

catskills mountain and water quality

in NY

timber harvest increased nitrate in soil water and streams due to reduced plant demand and increased production from slash piles

lasted 3 years

boreal BC and water quality

increased TSS after harvest in 1996

traced to landing with high erosion, effects lasted 2-3 after the decomission of access roads

example peachland BC

population about 5000, increased sediment loads due to forestry and forest roads led to extended periods of high turbidity that the water treatment plant was not designed to handle

new treatment needed to be built and cost 30 mil

best management in forest harvesting

monitor weather, avoid long/straight extraction routes, avoids slopes, maintain slash mats, avoid skidders on wet ground, keep away from streams, keep routes outside of buffer zones and valley bottoms, avoid long slopes, avoid buildup of slash piles near streams, use stone ramps to protect access routes, protect stream crossing, work away from wet terrain, replace upturned root plates near banksides, ensure runoff is away from streams, suspend operations when wet and muddy, phased felling - not all at once

so basically work away from moving water, avoid erosion heading to water

fires and water quality

release minerals, metals, into soil and potential runoff

burned infrastructure can be toxic and can leach into soil and GW

mudslide when rain, increase in temp when shade is lost, bacterial blooms can cause as a result - harming fish populations

forest fertilization

with nitrogen pellets is common and effective in BC and AB

can also add phosphate, sulfur, and boron

acts as diffuse mobilization of fertilizer into aquatic systems - eutrophication, lower DO

can last for years depending on climate but also highest in early days

herbicide is also common use

best management practices forest fert and herbicide

dont fert during wet weather/waterlogged/ frozen soils, dont apply in riparian buffer zones or near surface water/springs and wells, use hand application in buffer zones, dont apply when surface flow drains into/across buffer, treat dug drains as streams, increase buffer zone when using heli, dont ford streams w distributing, dont store fert bags in buffer zones, dont bury empty bags on site

riparian zones and buffering

transitional areas that work to improve water quality, filter sediments, shade for temp control, and input OM for biota use

also reduce erosion, flood control, and habitat

require a buffer zone to industry work, but this is a trade off depending on the size of the stream

ford crossings

drainage structure, but high risk for erosion and sediment transport

coarse material covers crossing - geowebs or concrete

vehicle speed is a big factor

but fish migration or biota movement??

culvert crossings

most common type

lower risk for high sediment erosion

but they get blocked, require maintenance, when hanging they restrict fish and also undersizing can lead to wash out

best management in forestry operations

should be implemented throughout forest management cycle

pre operation planning, training and education of other workers and land owners

key BMPs include - erosion control, rapid closure of access, sediment control at streams, improved stream crossings, riparian buffer zones and skid trail management and closure