psych

Positive Reinforcement

Adding something good to increase behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Taking away something bad to increase behavior.

Positive Punishment

Adding something bad to reduce behavior.

Negative Punishment

Taking away something good to reduce behavior.

Generalization

Doing the behavior in similar situations.

Discrimination

Only doing the behavior in one specific situation.

Extinction

Behavior fades when it’s no longer rewarded.

Spontaneous Recovery

Old behavior comes back after a break.

Continuous Reinforcement

Getting a reward every time you do the behavior.

Intermittent (Partial) Reinforcement

Getting a reward only sometimes.

Which method is better for learning, continuous or intermittent reinforcement?

Continuous is better to learn fast; partial makes it last longer.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Fixed-ratio, Variable-ratio, Fixed-interval, Variable-interval.

Fixed-Ratio

Reward after a set number of responses.

Variable-Ratio

Reward after a random number of responses.

Fixed-Interval

Reward after a set amount of time.

Variable-Interval

Reward after random time intervals.

Problems with Punishment

May cause fear, aggression, or not teach the right behavior.

Intrinsic Motivation

Doing something because you enjoy it.

Extrinsic Motivation

Doing something for a reward or goal.

Overjustification Effect

Rewards make you enjoy the task less.

Observational Learning

Learning by watching others.

Modeling

Copying what others do.

Bandura’s Bobo Doll Study

Kids copied adults being aggressive to a doll.

Implications of Observational Learning for Aggression

Watching violence can make people more aggressive.

Implications of Observational Learning for Prosocial Behavior

Seeing kindness makes people more helpful.

Encoding

Putting info into memory.

Storage

Keeping info in memory.

Retrieval

Bringing info out of memory.

Sensory Memory

Very short memory from the senses.

Short-Term Memory

Brief memory that lasts seconds.

Long-Term Memory

Memory that lasts a long time.

Iconic Memory

Visual sensory memory.

Echoic Memory

Hearing-related sensory memory.

Sperling’s Study of Iconic Memory

Flashed letters briefly and cued recall—showed visual memory fades fast.

Explicit Memory

Memory you’re aware of.

Implicit Memory

Memory that affects you without thinking about it.

Semantic Memory

Memory of facts and knowledge.

Episodic Memory

Memory of life events.

Types of Implicit Memory

Skills, priming, conditioned responses.

Procedural Memory

Memory for how to do things.

Priming

Earlier exposure helps later response.

Classically Conditioned Associations

Automatic emotional or physical reactions.

Recall

Bringing up memories with few clues.

Recognition

Knowing you’ve seen it before.

Relearning

Learning again is faster the second time.

Chunking

Grouping info to remember it easier.

Mnemonics

Tricks to help you remember.

Maintenance

Repeating info over and over.

Elaborative Rehearsal

you remember something better by connecting it to things you already know instead of just repeating it over and over

Levels of Processing Theory

Deeper thinking leads to better memory.

Shallow Processing

Focus on appearance.

Deep Processing

Focus on meaning.

CHAIR Study

People recalled more when given a cue—proved short-lived visual memory.

Context-Dependent Memory

Same setting helps you remember.

State-Dependent Memory

Same mood or body state helps memory.

Encoding Failure

Info never got stored.

Storage Decay

Info fades over time.

Retrieval Failure

You can’t access stored info.

Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve

Most forgetting happens fast after learning.

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

You almost remember but can’t fully get it.

Anterograde Amnesia

Can’t make new memories.

Retrograde Amnesia

Forget the past.

H.M.’s Amnesia Type

Had anterograde amnesia—couldn’t form new memories.

Eyewitness Testimony Reliability

Not always reliable; wording changes memory.

Testing Effect

Practicing retrieval helps memory more than re-reading.

Spacing Effect

Studying over time works better than cramming.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

A list of human needs from basic to advanced.

Self-Actualization

Becoming the best version of yourself and feeling fulfilled.

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

Body reacts first, then you feel the emotion.

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

Body and emotions happen at the same time.

Schachter and Singer’s Two-Factor Theory

Physical arousal followed by interpretation leads to emotion.

Angry/Happy Man Study

People copy emotions based on drug knowledge.

Misattribution of Arousal

Feeling aroused but wrongly guessing the cause.

Wobbly Bridge Study

Men mistook fear for attraction on shaky bridge.

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

Facial expressions can influence your emotional feelings.