psych

Operant Conditioning

1. What are positive reinforcement

• Adding something good to increase behavior

2. What are negative reinforcement

• Taking away something bad to increase behavior

3. What is positive punishment

• Adding something bad to reduce behavior

4. What is negative punishment?

• Taking away something good to reduce behavior

5. What is generalization?

• Doing the behavior in similar situations

6. What is discrimination?

• Only doing the behavior in one specific situation

7. What is extinction?

• Behavior fades when it’s no longer rewarded

8. What is spontaneous recovery?

• Old behavior comes back after a break

9. What are continuous reinforcement and

• Getting a reward every time you do the behavior

10. What is intermittent (partial) reinforcement?

• Getting a reward only sometimes

11. Between continuous and intermittent(partial) reinforcement, which is better for learning?

• Continuous is better to learn fast; partial makes it last longer

12. What are the schedules of reinforcement?

• Fixed-ratio, Variable-ratio, Fixed-interval, Variable-interval

13. Fixed-ratio

• Reward after a set number of responses

14. Variable-ratio

• Reward after a random number of responses

15. Fixed-interval

• Reward after a set amount of time

16. Variable-interval

• Reward after random time intervals

17. What are some problems with punishment?

• May cause fear, aggression, or not teach the right behavior

18. What is intrinsic motivation?

• Doing something because you enjoy it

19. What is extrinsic motivation?

• Doing something for a reward or goal

20. What is the overjustification effect?

• Rewards make you enjoy the task less

Observational Learning

21. What is observational learning?

• Learning by watching others

22. What is modeling?

• Copying what others do

23. What was Bandura’s Bobo doll study?

• Kids copied adults being aggressive to a doll

24. What are the implications of observational learning for aggressive

• Watching violence can make people more aggressive

25. What are the implications of observational learning for prosocial behavior?

• Seeing kindness makes people more helpful

Memory

26. What are encoding

• Putting info into memory

27. What is storage?

• Keeping info in memory

28. What is retrieval?

• Bringing info out of memory

29. What is sensory memory?

• Very short memory from the senses

30. What is short-term?

• Brief memory that lasts seconds

31. What is long-term memory?

• Memory that lasts a long time

32. What are iconic

• Visual sensory memory

33. What is echoic memory?

• Hearing-related sensory memory

34. How did Sperling study iconic memory?

• Flashed letters briefly and cued recall—showed visual memory fades fast

35. What is explicit memory?

• Memory you’re aware of

36. What is implicit memory?

• Memory that affects you without thinking about it

37. What are semantic memory

• Memory of facts and knowledge

38. What is episodic memory?

• Memory of life events

39. What are the 3 types of implicit memory

• Skills, priming, conditioned responses

40. Procedural memory

• Memory for how to do things

41. Priming

• Earlier exposure helps later response

42. Classically conditioned associations

• Automatic emotional or physical reactions

43. What is recall?

• Bringing up memories with few clues

44. What is recognition

• Knowing you’ve seen it before

45. What is relearning?

• Learning again is faster the second time

46. What are chunking

• Grouping info to remember it easier

47. What are mnemonics?

• Tricks to help you remember

48. What is maintenance?

• Repeating info over and over

49. What is an elaborative rehearsal?

• Thinking deeply about the meaning

50. What is Craik and Tulving’s (1975) levels of processing theory?

• Deeper thinking leads to better memory

51. What is shallow processing?

• Focus on appearance

52. What is deep processing?

• Focus on meaning

53. What was their study with CHAIR, etc.?

• People recalled more when given a cue—proved short-lived visual memory

54. What is context-dependent memory?

• Same setting helps you remember

55. What is state-dependent memory?

• Same mood or body state helps memory

56. What is encoding failure?

• Info never got stored

57. What is storage decay?

• Info fades over time

58. What is retrieval failure?

• You can’t access stored info

59. What is Ebbinghaus’s forgetting curve?

• Most forgetting happens fast after learning

60. What is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon?

• You almost remember but can’t fully get it

61. What is anterograde amnesia?

• Can’t make new memories

62. What is retrograde amnesia?

• Forget the past

63. What type of amnesia and memory impairment did H.M. experience?

• Had anterograde amnesia—couldn’t form new memories

64. Is eyewitness testimony reliable? What was found in Loftus’s (1974) study (hit vs. smashed)?

• Not always—wording like “smashed” changed people’s memory

65. What is the testing effect?

• Practicing retrieval helps memory more than re-reading

66. What is the spacing effect

• Studying over time works better than cramming

67. What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?

• Maslow’s hierarchy is a list of human needs from basic to advanced. You have to meet the lower needs (like food and safety) before moving on to higher ones (like self-esteem or achieving your full potential).

68. What is self-actualization?

• Self-actualization is the highest level in Maslow’s hierarchy. It means becoming the best version of yourself—reaching your full potential and feeling fulfilled in life.

69. What is the James-Lange theory of emotion?

• This theory says your body reacts first (like your heart beats fast), and then you feel the emotion (like fear).Example: You see a bear → your body trembles → then you feel scared.

70. What is the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion?

• This theory says your body and emotions happen at the same time.Example: You see a bear → you tremble and feel scared at the same time.

71. What is Schachter and Singer’s two-factor theory of emotion?

• This theory says you first feel physical arousal (like your heart racing), then you try to figure out why you feel that way. Your interpretation leads to an emotion.Example: You feel your heart race → you think “I must be scared” → then you feel fear.

72. What was found in the angry/happy man study (Schachter & Singer, 1962)?

• People were injected with a drug (some told what it would do, some not). Then they met someone acting angry or happy.Finding: People who didn’t know what the drug would do copied the emotion of the person they were with.This shows that how you interpret your physical feeling can change your emotion.

73. What is the misattribution of arousal?

• It means you feel aroused (physically), but you wrongly guess what’s causing it.

74. What was found in Dutton and Aron’s (1974) study with the wobbly bridge?

• Men on a shaky bridge (vs. a stable one) were more likely to call a woman after talking to her.Why? They misinterpreted their fear from the bridge as attraction. So, physical feelings can be confused with emotions.

75. What is the facial feedback hypothesis?

• It means your facial expression can actually make you feel the emotion.Example: Smiling can make you feel happier, even if you weren’t before.