Grade 12 Biology

Macromolecule

A very large organic molecule composed of many smaller molecules

Polymer

Long chains of repeating subunits

Monomer

small molecule that may react chemically to link with other, similar molecules.

Anabolic reaction

produces large molecules by joining smaller subunits

Catabolic Reaction

Large molecules are broken into smaller subunits

Condensation Reaction

The formation of an H2O molecule when 2 subunits are chemically joined (also called dehydration)

Hydrolysis Reaction

Involve the incorporation of an H2O molecule when a large molecule is broken into 2 subunits

Isomer

Molecules with the same formula but different structures

Maltose

Formed by the condensation of 2 a-glucose molecules, resulting in an a 1-4 linkage

Sucrose

Composed of a-glucose and a-fructose with an a 1-2 linkage

Amylose

An unbranched a-glucose polymer held together by a 1-4 glycosidic linkages

amylopectin

a branched a-glucose polymer composed of a main chain with glucose molecules attached by a 1-4 glycosidic bonds and branch points formed by a 1-6 glycosidic linkages

glycogen

Structurally similar to amylopectin. a 1-4 linkages between a-glucose monomers in the main chain and a 1-6 linkages at the branch points. It's more highly branched than amylopectin.

glycerides (fats)

Contain 1, 2 or 3 fatty acids connected to a glycerol with an ester linkage

phospholipid

Polar phosphate group in the head (hydrophilic)

Non-polar fatty acid tails (Hydrophobic)

Joining amino acids to form polypeptides

Amino acids are joined together by ribosomes in condensation reactions and form a peptide (amide) bond

Primary protein structure

Sequence of a chain of amino acids

secondary protein structure

Hydrogen bonding of the peptide backbone causes the amino acids to fold into a repeating pattern

Tertiary protein structure

3D folding pattern of a protein due to side chain interactions

Quaternary protein structure

protein consisting of more than one amino acid chain.

Only some proteins have a quaternary structure - if they're composed of more than one protein structure

Homeostasis

cells maintain a constant internal environment even with external changes

Passive transport

transport without energy expenditure

Diffusion

Substances move from high to low concentration

Facilitated Diffusion

Proteins help in the diffusion process

Carrier protein

Change shape to allow large, uncharged molecules to enter

channel proteins

tunnel shape allows charged particles to enter

Osmosis

DIffusion of water across a membrane

Hypotonic Solution

Higher water concentration outside, enters the cell and causes it to lyse

Hypertonic solution

Lower water concentration outside, water leaves cell and causes it to be flaccid

isotonic solution

Same concentration in and out of the cell

Thylakoid

tiny compartments found inside of chloroplasts

Lumen

The inside of the thylakoid. Light energy is converted into chemical energy

Stroma

connects the thylakoid

Chloroplast

The organelle that contains pigment molecules and enables plants to capture some solar energy and convert it into chemical potential energy

Granum

Stacks of thylakoid

Mitochondria

The organelle in which the biochemical processes of respiration and energy production occur. Has a double membrane

Matrix

The innermost part of the mitochondria, surrounded by the membrane. Where metabolic processes

Christae

Inner folds of the mitochondrial membrane that increase its surface area

ATP

Adenosine triphosphate. Made of adenine, a ribose, and 3 phosphates

NAD+

Nicotinamide adenide dinucleotide

FAD

Flavin adenide dinucleotide

Acetyl Co-A

Acetyl coenzyme A

Transforming principle

The factor that changes the phenotype - some unknown heritable substance from dead S cells changed the genetic makeup of the R- strain (GRIFFITH)

Double Helix

The structure of DNA. 2 intertwined strands of nucleotides form the basic structure of the genetic material

Deoxyribonucleic Acid

A polymer composed of 2 polynucleotide chains that coil around each other to form a double helix

Ribonucleic Acid

Single-stranded nucleic acid. Like DNA but has ribose sugar instead of deoxyribose and uracil instead of thymene

Nucleotide

Composed of a nitrogenous base, a pentose base (ribose/deoxyribose) and a phosphate group

Pyrimidine

Nucleotides with a single ring structure (thymene and cytosine)

Purine

Nucleotides with a double ring structure (adenine and guanine)

Adenine

A nucleotide base that is complementary to thymine (uracil in DNA)

Thymene

a nucleotide base that is complementary to adenine

Uracil

A nucleotide base in RNA that is complementary to Adenine

Cytosine

a nucleotide base that is complementary to guanine

Guanine

A nucleotide base that is complemetary to Cytosine

phosphodiester bond

The type of bond that links the nucleotides in DNA or RNA. joins the phosphate group of one nucleotide to the hydroxyl group on the sugar of another nucleotide

glycosyl bond

a type of ether bond that connects a carbohydrate (sugar) molecule to another group

semi-conservative replication

The process where a new DNA double helix is created using 1 original strand and 1 newly synthesized strand

transcription

The conversion of information from 1 'language' (DNA), to another (protein made of amino acids)

Translation

Decodes mRNA into amino acids, which form proteins

Replication fork

Y-shaped structure that forms during DNA replication. The DNA molecule is unwound, and the 2 parental strands are separated

Helicase

Unwinds DNA by disrupting hydrogen bonds

Gyrase

Keeps the DNA steady when it's being unwound and replicated

Single-strand binding proteins

SSB's keep separated strands of DNA apart

DNA Polymerase III

Adds complementary nucleotides in the 5' - 3' direction. Use RNA primers as starting points

DNA polymerase 1

Fills gaps in DNA that occue during replication

Ligase

Joins fragments by creating phosphodiester bonds

Primase

The enzyme that builds RNA primers

Primer

Starting point for DNA synthesis

Okazaki Fragments

short fragments of DNA that are the result fo the synthesis of the lagging strand during DNA replication

Spliceosome

The enzyme that cuts introns and reconnects exons to produce an mRNA transcript, which is now ready to leave the nucleus and be translated into protein

5' cap

protects the mRNA from digestion by nucleases and phosphates as it exits the nucleus and helps initiate translation

poly A tail

a strand of ~200 adenine bases are added to the 3' end for the same reason as the 5' cap

Promoter

Indicates to RNA polymerase where the beginning of the gene is and on which strand it's located

Transcription bubble

Temporary local unwinding of DNA during transcription

RNA polymerase

an enzyme that synthesyzes RNA from the DNA template during transcription

Template strand

Strand that is transcribed

Coding strand

Strand that is not transcribed

Glycolysation

Sugars are added to amino acid residues

Phosphorylation

phosphates are added to amino acid residues

epigenitics

Study of how an organism's behaviours and environments can affect the way it's genes work

Housekeeping Genes

Genes that are always turned on because they are needed for vital life functions in organisms

Operon

A cluster of genes (a segment of DNA) under the control of 1 promoter and 1 operator in prokaryotic cells. Turn genes on/off

Repressor

A protein that inhibits the expression of 1 or more genes, turning them off to reduce their activity

Co-repressor

a protein that interacts with a repressor protein to enhance its ability to inhibit gene transcription

Mutation

Sudden, random change in a gene, or unit of hereditary material (DNA), that can alter an inheritable characteristic. Can have positive or negative, or no effect on an organism.

point mutation

Mutations at a specific base pair in the genome (affect only 1 base). Caused by substitutions, where 1 base is replaced by another base.

silent mutation

mutation that doesn't change amino acids due to redundancy in the code.

Missense mutation

results in a change in the amino acid sequence

Nonsense mutation

a mutation that causes a stop codon to form

frameshift mutation

A mutation that changes the reading frame of the codons

Translocation Mutations

Transfer of a fragment of DNA from one site in the genome to another location. Can disrupt the normal function and structure of the genes

Anticodon

The three-base sequence at the bottom of the tRNA, which is complementary to a codon

Cytoplasm

Where glycolysis takes place