APUSH EXAM REVIEW

Pueblo People

A Native American group in the Southwest known for complex, multi-story adobe dwellings and irrigation-based agriculture. They cultivated maize as a staple crop and had a long history of resisting Spanish colonization, including in the Pueblo Revolt (1680).

Pueblo Revolt

(1680) A successful uprising of the Pueblo people in 1680 against Spanish rule in New Mexico, temporarily driving the Spanish out

Ute People

A nomadic Indigenous people of the Great Basin who relied on hunting, gathering, and trading. After acquiring horses from the Spanish in the 1600s, they became skilled equestrian hunters.

Chumash People

A Native American group along the California coast who lived in permanent villages and relied on ocean resources, including fishing and trading with other Indigenous groups using plank canoes known as tomols.

Chinook People

A Pacific Northwest Indigenous group that thrived due to their access to abundant salmon fisheries. They developed advanced trade networks and lived in cedar plank houses.

Cahokia

A Mississippian culture centered near present-day St. Louis, known for building massive earthen mounds, including Monks Mound, and engaging in widespread trade across North America.

Maritime

Relating to navigation, trade, and exploration by sea. European nations such as Spain and Portugal developed advanced maritime technologies, including the caravel and astrolabe, to explore the Atlantic and beyond.

Christopher Columbus

An Italian explorer who, sailing for Spain, made four voyages to the New World. His expeditions led to European colonization and the Columbian Exchange, dramatically altering global ecosystems and societies.

Encomienda System

(1500s-1600s) A Spanish labor system that granted colonists control over Indigenous people, forcing them to work in agriculture and mining in exchange for "protection" and Christianization. This system led to extreme exploitation and a sharp decline in Native populations.

Columbian Exchange

(1492-1600s) The transfer of crops, animals, diseases, and people between Europe, Africa, and the Americas. It introduced horses, wheat, and smallpox to the New World and potatoes, maize, and tobacco to Europe, fueling global population shifts.

Feudalism

A medieval European socio-economic system where land was controlled by nobility and worked by peasants (serfs) in exchange for protection. This system was gradually replaced by mercantilism and capitalism as European nations expanded overseas.

Joint-Stock Company

A business model that allowed investors to pool resources to fund colonial ventures while sharing profits and losses. The Virginia Company (1606) used this model to establish Jamestown (1607).

Casta System

A rigid racial hierarchy in Spanish America that ranked individuals based on their ancestry. Peninsulares (Spanish-born elites) were at the top, followed by Creoles, Mestizos, and Mulattoes, with Indigenous and African populations at the bottom.

Tobacco

A cash crop first successfully cultivated by John Rolfe in Virginia, transforming the Chesapeake economy. Its profitability led to the expansion of plantation agriculture and increased reliance on indentured servants and enslaved Africans

Triangular Trade

(1600s-1800s) A transatlantic trade system connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas. Slaves were transported from Africa to the Americas, raw materials (sugar, tobacco, cotton) were shipped to Europe, and manufactured goods (guns, textiles) were sent to Africa.

Social Contract

A political theory developed during the Enlightenment, stating that governments derive their authority from the consent of the governed. In exchange for protection of natural rights (life, liberty, property), people agreed to be ruled. If a government failed to uphold its part of the contract, the people had the right to overthrow it. John Locke’s ideas on the social contract heavily influenced the American Revolution and the Declaration of Independence

John Locke

A philosopher of the Enlightenment who argued that people have natural rights (life, liberty, property) and that governments should be based on a social contract. His ideas directly influenced Thomas Jefferson and the Declaration of Independence.

First Great Awakening

A religious revival movement in the American colonies that emphasized emotional, personal experiences with faith rather than traditional church doctrine. Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield were key figures in spreading revivalist preaching. The movement challenged established religious institutions, promoted new denominations, and laid the groundwork for American ideas of self-governance

George Whitefield

A British preacher and one of the most influential figures of the First Great Awakening (1730s–1740s). Known for his charismatic and emotional sermons, he traveled across the American colonies, drawing thousands to outdoor revival meetings. His emphasis on personal salvation, repentance, and rejecting traditional church authority helped to democratize religious practice and challenge the power of established clergy

Jonathan Edwards

A New England Puritan minister and one of the leading preachers of the First Great Awakening. His most famous sermon, “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” (1741), used vivid imagery and emotional appeals to warn of eternal damnation and encourage religious conversion. Edwards emphasized Calvinist beliefs in predestination and the sovereignty of God, but also contributed to a shift toward more personal and emotionally charged expressions of faith

Natural Rights

A concept from John Locke stating that all individuals are inherently entitled to life, liberty, and property by virtue of being human. These rights are not granted by governments but are inherent and must be protected. The idea of natural rights was later adapted by Thomas Jefferson in the Declaration of Independence (1776) as “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.”

King Philip's War

(1675-1676) A brutal conflict between New England colonists and Native American tribes led by Metacom (King Philip), the leader of the Wampanoag Confederacy. Frustrated by land encroachment and unfair colonial policies, Metacom united several tribes to resist English expansion. The war resulted in the destruction of multiple colonial settlements and Native villages, but ultimately ended with Metacom’s execution and the near-elimination of Native resistance in New England

Stono Rebellion

(1739) Enslaved Africans in South Carolina revolted, killing white settlers and attempting to escape to Spanish Florida, where they had been promised freedom. The rebellion was quickly suppressed, and in response, colonial authorities passed stricter slave codes

Navigation Acts

A series of British trade laws designed to enforce mercantilism by restricting colonial trade to benefit England. The laws required that:

• Colonies could only trade with English ships.

• Certain valuable American exports (tobacco, sugar, rice) could only be shipped to England.

• All foreign goods bound for the colonies had to first pass through British ports, where they were taxed.
  These acts led to widespread smuggling and colonial resentment, contributing to the growing tensions that later led to the American Revolution

Mercantilism

An economic policy in which European powers, particularly Britain, Spain, and France, sought to maximize their wealth and power by controlling colonial trade. Under mercantilism:

• Colonies existed to benefit the mother country by providing raw materials and purchasing manufactured goods.

• Governments regulated the economy to ensure that wealth flowed into the nation rather than to competitors.

• The policy led to strict trade laws like the Navigation Acts, which many American colonists resented, as they restricted economic freedom and encouraged smuggling.

House of Burgesses

(1619) first representative assembly in colonial America, established in Virginia. It allowed landowning white men to elect representatives to create laws and manage colonial affairs. While still under British authority, this marked the beginning of self-government in the colonies and served as a model for later democratic institutions

Mayflower Compact

(1620) foundational document for self-governance in America, signed by the Pilgrims aboard the Mayflower before landing at Plymouth. It established a social contract, in which settlers agreed to govern themselves through majority rule for the colony’s survival

Bacon's Rebellion

(1676) A revolt led by Nathaniel Bacon against Governor William Berkeley in Virginia. Indentured servants and frontier settlers resented elite rule and attacked both the colonial government and Native American tribes. The rebellion accelerated the shift to African slavery.

Enclosure Movement

A process in England where landowners fenced off common lands, forcing small farmers into cities or to migrate to the American colonies in search of work.

Indentured Servants

Workers who agreed to labor for a set number of years (usually 4–7) in exchange for passage to the New World. Many did not survive their contracts, and by the late 1600s, enslaved Africans began replacing them as the dominant labor force

Jamestown

(1607) first permanent English settlement in North America, established by the Virginia Company. The colony faced starvation, conflicts with Powhatan Indians, and disease but ultimately thrived due to tobacco cultivation

Ojibwe Indians

A Native American tribe in the Great Lakes region known for their involvement in the fur trade with French traders and their use of birchbark canoes.

French and Indian War

A war fought between Britain and France (along with their Native American allies) for control over the Ohio River Valley and North America. The war was part of the larger Seven Years' War (1756–1763) in Europe. Britain won, but the war left it with massive debt, leading to increased taxation on the colonies. The war’s aftermath fueled colonial resistance, ultimately leading to the American Revolution

Virginia Company

a joint-stock company that funded the establishment of Jamestown (1607), the first permanent English colony in North America. The company sought profit from gold and cash crops, but early settlers suffered from disease and starvation. Eventually, tobacco became the colony’s economic foundation. The company was dissolved in 1624, and Virginia became a royal colony under direct British contro

Peace of Paris

treaty that ended the French and Indian War, drastically altering North American territorial control:

• Britain gained Canada and all French territory east of the Mississippi River, as well as Florida from Spain.

• France lost almost all its North American territories, except for a few Caribbean islands.

• Spain gained Louisiana (west of the Mississippi) from France.

  Although Britain emerged victorious, the war left it in major debt, leading to taxation policies that angered colonists

Ohio River Valley

A contested region between the British, French, and Native American tribes due to its fertile land and strategic location. The British victory in the French and Indian War secured their claim, but Native American resistance, led by Pontiac’s Rebellion, continued

Pontiac

An Ottawa chief who led Pontiac’s Rebellion (1763–1766), a Native American uprising against British rule in the Great Lakes region. After the French and Indian War, Native Americans resisted British policies that restricted trade and expansion. Pontiac’s forces attacked British forts, but the rebellion was ultimately crushed.

Proclamation of 1763

Issued by King George III, this law banned colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains to prevent conflicts with Native Americans. Colonists, eager for land in the Ohio River Valley, viewed the proclamation as British interference in their expansion

Taxation Without Representation

A slogan used by American colonists to protest British taxes imposed without colonial consent. Under British rule, the colonies had no direct representatives in Parliament, yet they were taxed through laws like the Stamp Act and Sugar Act. Colonists argued that only their elected colonial legislatures had the right to impose taxes

Salutary Neglect

British policy of lax enforcement of colonial trade laws that allowed the American colonies to develop self-governance and economic independence. Britain mainly focused on its European conflicts and allowed colonies to trade with limited interference. However, after the French and Indian War, Britain ended salutary neglect and enforced strict tax and trade laws

Quartering Act of 1765

British law that required American colonists to house and supply British soldiers stationed in the colonies. Colonists saw this as an infringement on their rights and property, as they were forced to support an occupying army

Sugar Act

British tax law placed duties on sugar, molasses, and other imported goods. It marked the first major British tax that directly affected colonial economy

Stamp Act

direct tax on printed materials, including newspapers, legal documents, and playing cards. It was the first internal tax levied directly on American colonists, sparking widespread opposition

Virtual Representation

A British argument stating that colonists were “virtually represented” in Parliament, even though they had no elected representatives. Colonists rejected this idea, arguing that only their own elected assemblies had the right to tax them, fueling tensions that led to the Revolution

Sons of Liberty

radical colonial resistance group formed to protest British taxation and policies. Led by Samuel Adams, John Hancock, and Paul Revere, they used boycotts, propaganda, and violent tactics against British tax collectors. They were responsible for organizing the Boston Tea Party (1773) and played a crucial role in mobilizing resistance against British rule.

Daughters of Liberty

patriotic women’s organization that supported the American resistance by promoting boycotts of British goods. They spun their own homespun cloth to replace British textiles and encouraged Americans to buy locally made goods instead of imported ones. Their efforts helped make non-importation agreements effective and increased women's involvement in the Revolutionary cause.

Stamp Act Congress

A meeting of delegates from nine American colonies in New York City to oppose the Stamp Act. It was the first unified colonial response to British taxation and argued that only colonial legislatures had the power to tax. The Congress adopted the Declaration of Rights and Grievances, asserting "no taxation without representation."

Declaratory Act

Passed by the British Parliament immediately after repealing the Stamp Act, this law stated that Britain had the full authority to make laws and tax the colonies “in all cases whatsoever.” While it did not impose new taxes, it signaled that Britain would continue asserting control, leading to further colonial resistance

Townshend Acts

A series of British taxes on glass, paper, paint, lead, and tea intended to raise revenue and pay for colonial administration

Boston Massacre

violent confrontation in Boston where British soldiers fired into an unarmed crowd, killing four colonists. The event was heavily publicized by Paul Revere and Samuel Adams as anti-British propaganda, fueling colonial outrage

Tea Act of 1773

British law that granted the British East India Company a monopoly on tea sales in the colonies, allowing them to sell directly at a lower price. While it actually lowered the cost of tea, colonists saw it as an attempt to trick them into accepting British taxation

Boston Tea Party

protest organized by the Sons of Liberty, in which colonists disguised as Mohawk Indians dumped 342 chests of British tea into Boston Harbor to oppose the Tea Act of 1773. The act of rebellion enraged the British government.

Intolerable Acts

series of punitive laws passed by Britain in response to the Boston Tea Party. Colonists referred to them as the Intolerable Acts due to their harshness. The acts included:

1. Boston Port Act – Closed Boston Harbor until the tea was paid for.

2. Massachusetts Government Act – Limited self-government, making Massachusetts a royal colony under direct British control.

3. Administration of Justice Act – Allowed British officials accused of crimes to be tried in England instead of the colonies.

4. Quartering Act (expanded) – Allowed British soldiers to stay in colonial homes.

Patriots

Colonists who actively opposed British rule and supported independence. Patriots were often from New England and Virginia, and their ranks included radicals like Samuel Adams, John Hancock, and Thomas Jefferson

Continental Congress

governing body of colonial representatives that met in response to British policies:

• First Continental Congress (1774) – Met to respond to the Intolerable Acts, organized a boycott of British goods, and petitioned King George III.

• Second Continental Congress (1775–1781) – Organized the Continental Army, appointed George Washington as commander, and eventually adopted the Declaration of Independence (1776).

Thomas Paine

English-born political writer and philosopher whose pamphlet Common Sense was crucial in convincing American colonists to support independence.

Declaration of Independence

document written primarily by Thomas Jefferson, adopted by the Second Continental Congress, declaring the colonies independent from Britain. It was based on John Locke’s Enlightenment ideas, asserting that:

• All men have natural rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.

• Governments derive their power from the consent of the governed.

• If a government becomes tyrannical, the people have the right to overthrow it.

Loyalists

Colonists who remained loyal to Britain and opposed independence. Many were wealthy merchants, government officials, and Anglican clergy, especially in the South and New York City

American Revolution

(1775-1783) war fought between the 13 American colonies and Britain for independence. Key causes included:

• British taxation without representation

• Military occupation of colonies (Quartering Acts, Boston Massacre)

• Restrictive trade policies (Navigation Acts, Townshend Acts)

The war ended with the Treaty of Paris in which Britain recognized the United States as an independent nation.

Articles of Confederation

first constitution of the United States, which created a weak central government with no power to tax or enforce laws. It was replaced by the U.S. Constitution (1789) due to its weaknesses, including:

• No executive or judicial branch.

• No power to regulate commerce or raise an army.

• Required unanimous consent for amendments.

Battle of Yorktown

final major battle of the Revolutionary War, where Washington’s troops, with French military support, surrounded and forced British General Cornwallis to surrender. This effectively ended the war, leading to the Treaty of Paris (1783).

Battle of Saratoga

turning point in the American Revolution, where American forces defeated the British in New York. The victory convinced France to openly support the colonies, providing military aid, supplies, and naval support, which was crucial to American success.

George Washington

commander-in-chief of the Continental Army and later the first U.S. president (1789–1797). Washington’s leadership was crucial in:

• Keeping the Continental Army together during hardships (Valley Forge, 1777–1778).

• Winning key battles, such as Trenton (1776) and Yorktown (1781).

• Setting the precedent for a peaceful transition of power after the war

Common Sense

a pamphlet written by Thomas Paine that argued for American independence from Britain. It was widely read and had a significant influence on public opinion by making a clear, persuasive case for breaking away from British rule. Mainly argued that the colonies could thrive independently and it was illogical for a small island like Britain to have rule over a huge continent of America, and finally argued that Britain's king (King George III) was a tyrant

Spanish Armada

(1588) A massive fleet of Spanish warships sent by King Philip II of Spain to invade England and overthrow Queen Elizabeth I, in part to stop English support for Protestantism and privateer attacks on Spanish ships. The English navy, along with bad weather, defeated the Armada, marking the decline of Spain’s dominance in the Atlantic and paving the way for English colonization of North America.

Spanish Mission System

A network of Catholic missions established by the Spanish throughout the Southwest, California, and Florida to convert Native Americans to Christianity and integrate them into Spanish colonial society.

• Led by Franciscan priests, missions aimed to spread Catholicism and enforce Spanish control over indigenous people.

• Natives were often forced into labor, agriculture, and Spanish customs, leading to cultural suppression and resistance (e.g., Pueblo Revolt of 1680).

• Father Junípero Serra played a major role in founding missions in California.

Missions were a key part of Spain’s colonization efforts, but they also resulted in disease, labor exploitation, and cultural destruction for Native peoples.

Juan de Oñate

A Spanish conquistador and explorer who led an expedition into the American Southwest (1598), establishing New Mexico as a Spanish colony.

• Known for his brutal treatment of Native Americans, particularly the Acoma Massacre (1599), where his forces killed or enslaved hundreds of Acoma Pueblo people after a conflict.

• He established Santa Fe and expanded the Spanish presence in the region but was later banished from New Mexico due to his cruelty.

Oñate’s actions symbolize the violent nature of Spanish colonialism and the resistance of indigenous peoples against European rule.

Haitian Revolution

The first successful slave revolt that led to the independence of Haiti from France, making it the first Black-led republic and the first independent nation in Latin America. Inspired by the Enlightenment and the American and French Revolutions, enslaved Africans in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (modern-day Haiti) revolted against their oppressors.

John Rolfe

An English settler at Jamestown, Rolfe is best known for:

• Introducing tobacco cultivation to Virginia (using West Indian strains), making it the first profitable cash crop in the colony.

• Marrying Pocahontas (1614), which temporarily improved relations between the English and the Powhatan Confederacy

The Starving Time

A harsh winter in Jamestown, during which three-quarters of the colonists died due to:

• Lack of food after conflicts with Native Americans cut off trade.

• Harsh weather conditions and disease.

• Colonists resorting to eating horses, dogs, and even cannibalism to survive.

The colony was on the brink of collapse until John Smith’s leadership and the arrival of new supplies and settlers in 1610 helped it recover. This demonstrated the struggles of early English colonization and the need for stronger leadership and self-sufficiency

Continental Army

The official army of the American colonies during the Revolutionary War, created by the Second Continental Congress and led by George Washington. Unlike local militias, the Continental Army was a unified military force that fought against the British.

• Struggled with supplies, training, and funding, especially in early battles.

• Benefited from French military aid after the Battle of Saratoga (1777).

• Played a decisive role in the Battle of Yorktown (1781), which led to British surrender.

Northwest Ordinance of 1787

One of the most significant achievements of the Articles of Confederation, it established a system for organizing new territories and expanding westward.

• Created the Northwest Territory (Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin).

• Banned slavery in the Northwest Territory, setting a precedent for future debates over slavery.

• Established a process for territories to become states once they reached a population of 60,000.

Shay’s Rebellion

A rebellion led by Daniel Shays, a Massachusetts farmer and Revolutionary War veteran, in response to high taxes and debt collection. The federal government under the Articles of Confederation was too weak to suppress the rebellion, highlighting the need for a stronger central government.

XYZ Affair

A diplomatic incident between the United States and France in which French officials, referred to as "X, Y, and Z," demanded bribes and loans from American diplomats to negotiate an end to French attacks on U.S. ships. The scandal led to anti-French sentiment in the U.S. and an undeclared naval conflict known as the Quasi-War.

Alien and Sedition Acts

A series of four laws passed by the Federalist-controlled Congress under John Adams that restricted immigration, increased the president’s power to deport non-citizens, and criminalized criticism of the federal government. These acts were seen as an attempt to silence opposition, particularly from Democratic-Republicans.

Virginia and Kentucky Resolution

Political statements authored by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison arguing that states had the right to nullify federal laws they deemed unconstitutional, specifically the Alien and Sedition Acts. These resolutions introduced the concept of states' rights and set the foundation for later nullification debates.

Thomas Jefferson

A Founding Father, the principal author of the Declaration of Independence, and the third President of the United States. As a leader of the Democratic-Republican Party, he opposed Federalist policies, supported states’ rights, and advocated for an agrarian economy. His presidency included the Louisiana Purchase and the controversial Embargo Act of 1807.

Indian Trade and Intercourse Act

A series of laws passed by Congress to regulate trade and relations between Native American tribes and U.S. settlers. It aimed to protect Native lands by prohibiting unauthorized land purchases and required federal approval for interactions with tribes, though it was often ignored by settlers moving westward.

Pinckney’s Treaty

A treaty between the United States and Spain that granted Americans the right to navigate the Mississippi River and use the port of New Orleans for trade. It also settled the U.S.-Spanish border in Florida and eased tensions between the two nations, strengthening American expansion efforts.

Constitutional Convention

(1787) a meeting held in Philadelphia where delegates from 12 states (except Rhode Island) convened to revise the Articles of Confederation but ultimately created a new U.S. Constitution. Major debates centered around representation, slavery, and federal power, leading to key compromises like the Great Compromise and Three-Fifths Compromise. The Constitution established a stronger national government with three branches, a system of checks and balances, and a framework that remains in effect today

Federalists

supporters of the Constitution who favored a strong central government to ensure stability and economic growth. Led by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay

Anti-Federalists

opposed the ratification of the Constitution, fearing that it gave too much power to the federal government at the expense of state and individual rights. Leaders like Patrick Henry, George Mason, and Thomas Jefferson advocated for stronger state governments and demanded a Bill of Rights to guarantee personal freedoms

Virginia Plan

(1787) proposed by James Madison, called for a bicameral (two-house) legislature with representation based on population. It favored larger states by giving them more influence in the national government. The plan also proposed a strong federal government with three branches

New Jersey Plan

proposed by William Paterson, favored small states by advocating for a unicameral (one-house) legislature with equal representation for each state, regardless of population. It aimed to preserve the power of smaller states and closely resembled the Articles of Confederation by maintaining a weaker national government.

The Great Compromise

also known as the Connecticut Compromise, resolved the dispute between large and small states by creating a bicameral legislature:

• The House of Representatives would have representation based on population (favored by large states).

• The Senate would have equal representation (two per state) (favored by small states).
  This compromise created the legislative structure of the U.S. Congress, balancing power between states of different sizes.

Three-Fifths Compromise

determined that each enslaved person would count as three-fifths of a person for representation in the House of Representatives

Federalist Papers

A series of 85 essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay to promote ratification of the U.S. Constitution. The essays argued for a strong central government, separation of powers, and a system of checks and balances

Bills of Rights

the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, added to protect individual liberties from government overreach. This was demanded by the Anti-Federalists as a condition for supporting the Constitution.

Republican Motherhood

the idea that women played a crucial role in raising virtuous, patriotic children (sons) to sustain the new republic. It emphasized women’s education so they could teach republican values to their children

John Adams

a Founding Father, Federalist, and the second President of the United States (1797–1801). He played a crucial role in the American Revolution, helped draft the Declaration of Independence, and served as the first Vice President. As president, he faced tensions with France, leading to the XYZ Affair and the Alien and Sedition Acts, which were highly controversial. Lost reelection to Thomas Jefferson.

Alexander Hamilton

a Founding Father, the first Secretary of the Treasury, and leader of the Federalist Party. He created an economic plan to establish financial stability, encourage industrialization, and strengthen federal power. His policies included the creation of a National Bank, the assumption of state debts, and support for protective tariffs. He also co-authored The Federalist Papers

National Bank

proposed by Alexander Hamilton, was created to stabilize the U.S. economy by handling government funds, issuing currency, and providing loans. While Federalists supported it, Democratic-Republicans (led by Jefferson) opposed it, believing it gave too much power to the federal government and favored the wealthy

Whiskey Rebellion

an armed protest by western Pennsylvania farmers against a federal excise tax on whiskey imposed by Hamilton. President George Washington personally led troops to suppress the rebellion, demonstrating the strength of the new Constitution compared to the weak Articles of Confederation

Democratic Republicans

A political party led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, opposing the Federalists. They favored states’ rights, a limited federal government, and an agrarian economy. The party was strongest in the South and West and supported the common farmer over the elite

Washington’s Farewell Speech

his final speech as president, in which he strongly argued three main points: avoid formation of political parties, avoid sectionalism and preserve national unity, and do not get involved in foreign affairs and remain neutral

John Smith

English soldier, explorer, and leader of the Jamestown colony in Virginia. He played a crucial role in the colony's survival by enforcing the rule "He who does not work shall not eat", which helped discipline settlers who were struggling with famine and disease. He established trade and an uneasy alliance with the Powhatan Confederacy, though tensions remained high. After being injured in 1609, he returned to England, and his absence contributed to the hardships of the Starving Time (1609–1610) in Jamestown.

Powhatan Confederacy

a powerful alliance of Native American tribes in the Chesapeake region, led by Chief Powhatan. The confederacy initially engaged in trade with English settlers at Jamestown, providing them with food and knowledge of local agriculture

Headright System

a land grant policy used by the Virginia Company to encourage colonization in the New World. Under this system, any settler who paid for their own passage or that of another person to Virginia was given 50 acres of land per person.

John Winthrop

a Puritan leader and the first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. He envisioned the colony as a "City Upon a Hill," a model Christian society that would be an example for the world. Winthrop strongly supported religious conformity and strict Puritan laws, discouraging dissent within the colony.

Roger Williams

a Puritan minister and founder of Rhode Island who was banished from Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1636 for advocating for religious freedom and separation of church and state. He opposed the forced conversion of Native Americans and believed in fair treatment and land purchases from indigenous people. After his exile, he established Providence, Rhode Island, a colony known for its religious tolerance and democratic governance