APUSH EXAM REVIEW

Pueblo People (c. 1000–Present) – A Native American group in the Southwest (modern-day Arizona & New Mexico) known for their complex, multi-story adobe dwellings and advanced irrigation systems that supported maize (corn) agriculture. The Pueblos had a highly organized society with religious leaders holding significant power. They fiercely resisted Spanish colonization, most notably in the Pueblo Revolt (1680), where they expelled the Spanish for over a decade.

Ute People (Pre-Columbian–Present) – A nomadic hunter-gatherer tribe in the Great Basin region (Utah, Colorado, Wyoming). They relied on seasonal migration to hunt bison and gather plant-based food sources. After the introduction of the horse by the Spanish in the 1600s, the Utes became skilled equestrians, which increased their mobility and warfare capabilities.

Chumash People (Pre-Columbian–Present) – A coastal Indigenous tribe from California who lived in permanent villages and were skilled in maritime fishing. They used plank canoes (tomols) to navigate the Pacific and established complex trade networks with inland tribes. Unlike nomadic groups, the Chumash had chiefdoms and a class hierarchy.

Chinook People (Pre-Columbian–Present) – A Native American tribe from the Pacific Northwest, known for their fishing-based economy, complex social structure, and cedar plank houses. They relied heavily on salmon fishing and had extensive trade networks along the Columbia River. Their society was highly stratified, with an upper class that included shamans and skilled traders.

Cahokia People (c. 700–1400) – The most influential civilization of the Mississippian culture, Cahokia was a large urban center near present-day St. Louis, Missouri. At its peak, it had 30,000 residents, making it one of the largest cities in North America before European contact. Cahokia’s society was centered around agriculture (corn), mound-building, and long-distance trade. The largest structure, Monks Mound, demonstrated their advanced engineering capabilities.

Maritime (c. 1400s–1600s) – Relating to seafaring exploration, trade, and navigation. During the Age of Exploration, European nations developed advanced sailing technologies such as the caravel, astrolabe, and lateen sail, allowing them to explore and colonize distant lands.

Christopher Columbus (1492) – An Italian explorer who, under the sponsorship of Spain’s Ferdinand and Isabella, set sail westward to find a direct trade route to Asia but instead landed in the Caribbean. His voyages led to the European colonization of the Americas and sparked the Columbian Exchange, a massive transfer of goods, people, diseases, and ideas between the Old and New Worlds. His arrival also marked the beginning of the brutal subjugation of Indigenous peoples.

Encomienda System (1500s–1600s) – A Spanish forced labor system in which the Crown granted landowners (encomenderos) the right to extract tribute and labor from Indigenous people in exchange for their “protection” and Christianization. In practice, it was a system of brutal slavery, leading to the decline of Native populations. Bartolomé de Las Casas became one of the strongest critics of the system, advocating for Indigenous rights.

Columbian Exchange (1492–1600s) – The global exchange of plants, animals, diseases, and people between Europe, Africa, and the Americas following Columbus’s voyages. It introduced smallpox, horses, and wheat to the Americas, while potatoes, maize, and tobacco were brought to Europe. The introduction of deadly European diseases devastated Indigenous populations, while European diets and economies were transformed by New World crops.

Feudalism (c. 800–1600s) – A medieval European social and economic system where land was held by nobles, worked by peasants (serfs) in exchange for protection. It began to decline in the 1500s as the rise of mercantilism and colonization shifted economic power toward a capitalist economy.

Joint-Stock Company (1600s–1700s) – A business model in which multiple investors pooled money to finance colonial ventures, sharing both profits and risks. The Virginia Company (1606) used this method to establish Jamestown (1607), demonstrating the role of capitalism in early colonization.

Casta System (1500s–1700s) – A racial hierarchy in Spanish America that classified people based on their ancestry. At the top were Peninsulares (Spanish-born elites), followed by Creoles (American-born Spaniards), Mestizos (Spanish-Native mix), Mulattoes (Spanish-African mix), Indigenous people, and Africans at the bottom. This system reinforced social inequality and controlled colonial society.

Tobacco (1612–Present) – The cash crop that saved Jamestown and became the economic foundation of the Chesapeake colonies (Virginia and Maryland). John Rolfe introduced tobacco cultivation, which led to plantation-based agriculture and an increased demand for labor, first using indentured servants and later enslaved Africans.

Triangular Trade (1600s–1800s) – A three-part trading system that connected Europe, Africa, and the Americas.

• Europe sent manufactured goods (guns, textiles, and alcohol) to Africa.

• Africa sent enslaved people to the Americas via the Middle Passage.

• The Americas sent raw materials (sugar, cotton, tobacco, and rum) to Europe.

Social Contract (1600s–1700s) – A political theory developed during the Enlightenment, stating that governments derive their authority from the consent of the governed. In exchange for protection of natural rights (life, liberty, property), people agreed to be ruled. If a government failed to uphold its part of the contract, the people had the right to overthrow it. John Locke’s ideas on the social contract heavily influenced the American Revolution and the Declaration of Independence.

John Locke (1632–1704) – A philosopher of the Enlightenment who argued that people have natural rights (life, liberty, property) and that governments should be based on a social contract. His ideas directly influenced Thomas Jefferson and the Declaration of Independence.

Great Awakening (1730s–1740s) – A religious revival movement in the American colonies that emphasized emotional, personal experiences with faith rather than traditional church doctrine. Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield were key figures in spreading revivalist preaching. The movement challenged established religious institutions, promoted new denominations, and laid the groundwork for American ideas of self-governance.

George Whitefield (1714–1770) – A British preacher and one of the most influential figures of the First Great Awakening (1730s–1740s). Known for his charismatic and emotional sermons, he traveled across the American colonies, drawing thousands to outdoor revival meetings. His emphasis on personal salvation, repentance, and rejecting traditional church authority helped to democratize religious practice and challenge the power of established clergy. Whitefield’s sermons laid the foundation for the rise of new Protestant denominations and increased religious independence, influencing ideas about personal liberty that later shaped the American Revolution.

Jonathan Edwards (1703–1758) – A New England Puritan minister and one of the leading preachers of the First Great Awakening. His most famous sermon, “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” (1741), used vivid imagery and emotional appeals to warn of eternal damnation and encourage religious conversion. Edwards emphasized Calvinist beliefs in predestination and the sovereignty of God, but also contributed to a shift toward more personal and emotionally charged expressions of faith.

John Locke (1632–1704) – An English Enlightenment philosopher whose ideas on natural rights and government by consent heavily influenced the American Revolution and the Declaration of Independence. In his Two Treatises of Government (1689), Locke argued that all people are born with natural rights to life, liberty, and property and that governments exist to protect these rights. If a government becomes tyrannical and violates this social contract, the people have the right to overthrow it. His ideas shaped American democratic principles and justified resistance to British rule.

Natural Rights (1600s–1700s) – A concept from John Locke stating that all individuals are inherently entitled to life, liberty, and property by virtue of being human. These rights are not granted by governments but are inherent and must be protected. The idea of natural rights was later adapted by Thomas Jefferson in the Declaration of Independence (1776) as “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.”

King Philip's War (1675–1676) – A brutal conflict between New England colonists and Native American tribes led by Metacom (King Philip), the leader of the Wampanoag Confederacy. Frustrated by land encroachment and unfair colonial policies, Metacom united several tribes to resist English expansion. The war resulted in the destruction of multiple colonial settlements and Native villages, but ultimately ended with Metacom’s execution and the near-elimination of Native resistance in New England. It was one of the deadliest wars per capita in U.S. history and marked a turning point in the decline of Native power in the region.

Pueblo Revolt (1680) – A successful Indigenous uprising led by Popé, a Pueblo religious leader, against Spanish colonial rule in present-day New Mexico. The Pueblo people, suffering from forced Catholic conversion, brutal labor systems (encomienda), and Spanish repression of their culture, united to drive the Spanish out of Santa Fe. The revolt temporarily expelled the Spanish for 12 years, marking one of the few successful Native revolts against European colonization. However, when the Spanish returned in 1692, they adopted more accommodating policies toward Indigenous people.

Stono Rebellion (1739) – The largest slave uprising in the British American colonies before the American Revolution. Enslaved Africans in South Carolina revolted, killing white settlers and attempting to escape to Spanish Florida, where they had been promised freedom. The rebellion was quickly suppressed, and in response, colonial authorities passed stricter slave codes (such as the Negro Act of 1740) that limited enslaved people's movement, assembly, and education.

Navigation Acts (1651–1733) – A series of British trade laws designed to enforce mercantilism by restricting colonial trade to benefit England. The laws required that:

• Colonies could only trade with English ships.

• Certain valuable American exports (tobacco, sugar, rice) could only be shipped to England.

• All foreign goods bound for the colonies had to first pass through British ports, where they were taxed.
  These acts led to widespread smuggling and colonial resentment, contributing to the growing tensions that later led to the American Revolution.

Mercantilism (1600s–1700s) – An economic policy in which European powers, particularly Britain, Spain, and France, sought to maximize their wealth and power by controlling colonial trade. Under mercantilism:

• Colonies existed to benefit the mother country by providing raw materials and purchasing manufactured goods.

• Governments regulated the economy to ensure that wealth flowed into the nation rather than to competitors.

• The policy led to strict trade laws like the Navigation Acts, which many American colonists resented, as they restricted economic freedom and encouraged smuggling.

House of Burgesses (1619) – The first representative assembly in colonial America, established in Virginia. It allowed landowning white men to elect representatives to create laws and manage colonial affairs. While still under British authority, the House of Burgesses marked the beginning of self-government in the colonies and served as a model for later democratic institutions.

Mayflower Compact (1620) – A foundational document for self-governance in America, signed by the Pilgrims aboard the Mayflower before landing at Plymouth. It established a social contract, in which settlers agreed to govern themselves through majority rule for the colony’s survival. This was one of the first steps toward democratic governance in the New World and influenced the development of later colonial governments.

Bacon's Rebellion (1676) – A revolt led by Nathaniel Bacon against Governor William Berkeley in Virginia. Indentured servants and frontier settlers resented elite rule and attacked both the colonial government and Native American tribes. The rebellion accelerated the shift to African slavery.

Enclosure Movement (1500s–1600s) – A process in England where landowners fenced off common lands, forcing small farmers into cities or to migrate to the American colonies in search of work.

Indentured Servants (1600s) – Workers who agreed to labor for a set number of years (usually 4–7) in exchange for passage to the New World. Many did not survive their contracts, and by the late 1600s, enslaved Africans began replacing them as the dominant labor force.

Jamestown (1607) – The first permanent English settlement in North America, established by the Virginia Company. The colony faced starvation, conflicts with Powhatan Indians, and disease but ultimately thrived due to tobacco cultivation.

Ojibwe Indians (Pre-Columbian–Present) – A Native American tribe in the Great Lakes region known for their involvement in the fur trade with French traders and their use of birchbark canoes.