WHAP

Patrilineal

Descent and inheritance traced through the father.

Matrilineal

Descent traced through the mother.

Ziggurat

Massive, stepped temple-tower in ancient Mesopotamia.

Mesopotamia

Region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers; cradle of ancient Mesopotamian civilizations.

Cuneiform

One of the earliest writing systems, developed by the Sumerians in Mesopotamia; wedge-shaped marks pressed into clay tablets.

Indo-Aryan

Early group of peoples/languages in the Indian subcontinent associated with early Sanskrit literature.

Sanskrit

Ancient classical language of India; language of the Vedas and Hindu philosophy and religion.

Upanishads

A collection of ancient Indian texts forming the philosophical basis of Hinduism.

Animism

Belief that objects, places, and creatures possess a spiritual essence.

Paleolithic

Old Stone Age; period of human history characterized by crude stone tools and hunter-gatherer subsistence.

Hinduism

Major Indian religion; belief in dharma, karma, and moksha; diverse practices rooted in the Vedas and Upanishads.

Jainism

Ancient Indian religion emphasizing non-violence (ahimsa) and asceticism.

Empire

A political structure that governs a large territory and diverse peoples under a single sovereign authority.

Conquest

The act of gaining territory or power through military force.

Dynasty

A succession of rulers from the same family maintaining political power over generations.

Bureaucracy

A system of government administration staffed by officials who implement policy.

Centralized Government

Power concentrated in a single central authority.

Decentralized Government

Power distributed away from a central authority to regional or local authorities.

Continuity

The persistence of certain elements or structures over time despite change.

Domestication

The process of modifying wild plants and animals for human use (agriculture and animal husbandry).

Agrarian

Relating to agriculture; societies or economies primarily based on farming.

Caste System

A rigid social hierarchy in which people are born into hereditary groups that determine social status and opportunities.