Industrialization Reshapes Europe

The Industrial Revolution

1780-1850

* Began in Britain in the second half of the 18th century
* Moved to France, Holland, Belgium, and the US in the second decade of the 19th century
* Began in Germany, Austria, and Italy in the middle of the 19th century
* Eastern Europe and Russia only saw industrialization at the end of the 19th century
* Part of Asia and Africa did not industrialize until well into the 20th century

Agricultural Revolution

* landowning aristocrats dominated Parliament after the glorious rev and passed the Enclosure Acts in Britain
* Made large landowners more prosperous so they would invest in tech
* Surplus production enable agriculture to support a large population
* Small farmers moved to cities and made up factory workers

Demographic Changes

* mortality disasters came abt in the 17th and 18th century which introduced a need for birth control
* By the 1750s tho better weather, transportation, crop, less disease, and advances in medicine ended the super high mortality rates
* By the start of the 19th century less child mortality and increased life expectancy led to the emergence of new attitudes toward children and families
* Increased literacy, education, and a healthier population
* More poor throughout Europe which distressed gov officials
* More illegitimate births between 1750-1850

Consumer revolution

* consumers demanded new items
* new leisure venues
* labor became more mobile
* commercial wealth increased

Urbanization

* huge migration rural villages during the 19th century
* cities modernized infrastructure (urban planning, regulated public health, reformed prisons, and established modern police forces
* Communal values were eroded
* Cities saw overcrowding and filthy living conditions + great awareness of poverty, crime, and prostitution
* Labor unions were established
* Public education + organization to assist the poor (sunday school) + temperance movement (against alcohol) + British abolitionist movement

Coal

* replaced wood as both a fuel and for industrial processes because Britain’s forests were depleted
* Mined near the coast

Steam Pump.Engine

* needed to pump water out of mines
* Thomas Newcomen’s steam pump was improved by James Watt in 1763
* Revolutionized mining, textile, and railroad industries
* creation of huge factories and ended the putting-out system (slavery became a less efficient means of production)

John Kay

invented the fly shuttle in 1733 which cut manpower needed on looms in half

Richard Hargreaves

invented the spinning jenny in 1764 which mechanized the spinning wheel

Richard Arkwright

* invented the water frame in 1769 to improve thread spinning
* Used the steam engine in the 1780s to power the looms and required factory production of textiles instead of domestic industry
* the first steam powerd mill used Crompton’s “mule”, along with Hargreaves’ and Arkwright’s machines

Eli Whitney

American who invented the cotton gin in 1793 which separated seed from raw cotton fiber and increased the supply of cotton which was spun into thread and then woven into cloth

New Transportation

* Steamboat (Robert Fulton, 1807)
* Railroad steam locomotive (George Stephenson’s Rocket, 1829)
* enhanced transportation past the already available network of canals
* allowed new sources of raw material and new markets for manufactured goods
* Railroad building boom: 1830-1850: liverpool and manchester railway began
* lower cost of shipping - refrigerated railcars = feed people cheaply
* Led to subways, bicycle, and automobiles

Oil

* end of the 19th century: refinement of petroleum means it can be used for internal combustion engines
* gasoline was refined for the first time in 1850

Why was Britain the first to industrialize?

* stable government
* ready supplies of coal, iron ore, and other raw materials
* mechanization of textile, iron, and steel production (Bessemer’s steel converter)
* efficient transportation system
* Economic freedoms + availability of human capital
* Enclosure movement = agricultural productivity

Fritz Harkort

* spread industrial ideas to the continent
* made steam engines in Germany

Great Exposition

1851

* Crystal Palace, London
* Britain gave financial awards to inventors

Friedrich List

* manufacturing was the primary means of increasing people’s well-being
* *National System of Political Economy*
* conceived and advocated for the Zollverein in 1834: Prussian led customs union of German states
* goods can move within the German states without tariffs but their are still protective tariffs on foreign goods

Slower industrialization of the continent

* France: strong guilds and Napoleonic wars but the gov supported banks, canals, and national railroads so it caught up


* Southern and Eastern Europe: lack of resources, serfdom, geography, and lack of government sponsorship.

Results of Industrial Rev

* increased production of manufactured goods
* Factory work - workers lived in poverty in dismal housing
* Entire families would work hard hours around unsafe conditions
* Sadler Commission in GB helped initiate legislation to improve working conditions in factories
* Urbanization
* Women = domestic duties
* Improved diets

Labor reforms

* the Factory Act of 1833
* the Mines Act of 1842
* The Ten Hours Act of 1847

Class changes

* two new classes: industrialists and factory workers
* low wages for long hours - rigid discipline
* Child labor laws
* unions
* huge divide between bourgeoisie and proletariat
* victorian behavior pattern
* Division of labor by gender
* Feminists: Flora Tristan and Emmeline Pankhurst
* The British Women’s Social and Political Union: female suffrage
* Men became the breadwinners
* Chartist movement: voting rights for all males

Urban reform and innovation

* Edwin Chadwick lead reform movement with his Chadwick Report of 1842
* installed sewage and water systems
* Created the Public Health Act of 1848 as a response to the cholera outbreak
* Paris was redesigned between 1853 and 1870 by Georges Haussmann
* Slums were destroyed in favor of broad avenues (to prevent barricades)
* Public transportation was created
* Zoning laws were passed
* Sewage and water systems were added
* First skyscraper was built in chicago and the brooklyn bridge was opened in 1883 - eiffel tower built in 1889

Adam Smith

* first modern economist
* *Wealth of Nations* = bible of capitalism
* laissez-faire
* natural laws such as supply and demand should goven the economy - not the gov

Thomas Malthus

(1766-1834)

* population grows to fast for food
* overpopulation + starvation is inevitable

David Ricardo

(1772-1823)

* Iron Law of Wages
* wages should not be controlled by the government

Robert Owen

(1771-1858)

* textile manufacturer that employed humane working conditions

The Comte de Saint Simon

(1771-1858)

* early French founder of socialism
* advocated for public ownership of factories
* wanted professional managerial corps to run factories: the technocrats
* proposed a planned economy

John Stuart Mill

* wrote against the tyranny of the majority
* *On Liberty*
* proponent of utilitarianism

Louis Blanc

(1811-1882)

* urged workers to fight for universal suffrage to overthrow the state peacefully
* believed government should set up workshops and factories to guarantee full employment

Karl Marx

(1818-1883)

* *Communist Manifesto* written with Friedrich Engels (1820-1895)
* *Das Kapital*
* Hegelian dialectic: thesis vs antithesis = synthesis
* Dialectical materialism: society progressed from agrarian, to slave holding, feudalism, bourgeois commercialism, capitalism, socialism, and finally communism/a classless society where workers own the means of production
* Inevitable revolution: when workers wages did not allow them to buy the products of manufacture they would rise up and create a communist dictatorship of the proletariat with no government; exploitation would stop

Anarchists

* Mikhail Bakunin and Georges Sorel
* all forms of gov are unnecessary
* should be replaced with a society based on voluntary cooperation

Technological Revolution

(1870-1914)

* mechanization and the factory system became the predominant modes of production by 1914
* Mass production - consumer goods became part of the mass market
* industries were dominated by big businesses
* Electricity + internal combustion engines increased productivity
* New industries: chemical, electricity, leisure, professional sports, and automobile
* Mass marketing: advertising, department stores, catalogs

Jethro Tull

(1708)

* created the mechanical seed drill to make cultivation in rows widespread which made manual work and weeding more efficient

James Brindley

1761

* opened a water canal
* Barges carried coal from Worsley to Manchester

William Murdock

1792

* lit his home with coal gas

Robert Trevithick

1801

* steam locomotive

Marc Brunel

1826-1842

* First underwater tunnel under the Thames

Michael Faraday

1831

* discovered electromagnetic current
* made generators and electric engines possible

Charles Babbage

1834

* created the analytic engine

Samuel F.B Morse

1837

* created the telegraph and Morse Code
* first transatlantic cable in 1858

Daguerre

1838

* Daguerrotype: early form of photography

Joseph Monier

* developed reinforced concrete

Alfred Noble

1867

* created dynamite

Alexander Graham Bell

1876

* invented the telephone

Thomas Edison

1877: invented the phonograph

1879: invented the incandescent lamp

Hiram Maxim

1884

* invented the machine gun

Karl Benz

1885

* developed the first internal combustion automobile engine

Guglielmo Marconi

1896: patented the wireless telegraph

1901: transmitted the first transatlantic radio message