Psy Exam 1

Chapters 1-3

Psychology

scientific study of behavior and mental processes, study ranges from behavior of single nerve cell to behavior of crowds of people or entire cultures

Aristotle

Impact of physiology on emergence of psychology, *Scientific discoveries* demonstrated that the scientific method could be applied to behavior and mental processes

René Descartes

**Interactive dualism,** Mind and body are separate entities that interact to produce sensations, emotions, and other conscious experiences.

Wilhelm Wundt

Founder of Psychology, **1874—**Landmark text *Principles of Physiological Psychology,* **1879—**First psychology lab at the University of Leipzig

Edward B. Titchener

student of Wundt, developed approach called **structuralism**—involving introspection and study of basic components of conscious experiences, focused on basic sensory and perceptual processes, criticized for relying on introspection

William James

Opposed Wundt and Titchener’s approach and shaped school of functionalism, Influenced by Darwin to focus on how behaviors help us adapt to the environment, Stressed the importance of how behavior functions to allow people and animals to adapt to their environments

G. Stanley Hall

First psychological lab in the U.S. at John Hopkins; founded the American Psychological Association (APA)

Mary Whiton Calkins

In 1905, she was elected president of the American Psychological Association—the first woman, but not the last, to hold that position

Margaret Floy Washburn

First American woman to earn an official Ph.D. in psychology

**Francis C. Sumner**

First African American to receive a Ph.D. in psychology, awarded by Clark University in 1920

Sigmund Freud

Started school of thought called **psychoanalysis:** Personality theory and form of psychotherapy, Suggests behavior and personality influenced by unconscious conflicts, Emphasizes role of unconscious factors in personality and behavior, Emphasizes sexual and aggressive nature of unconscious processes, Powerful influence on later theories of psychology

**Ivan Pavlov**

Russian physiologist, Demonstrated that dogs could learn to associate a neutral stimulus, such as the ticking of a metronome, with an automatic behavior, such as reflexively salivating to food

John Watson

Posited that the goal of the behaviorists was to discover the fundamental principles of learning—how behavior is acquired and modified in response to environmental influences

B.F. Skinner

Believed that psychology should restrict itself to studying outwardly observable behaviors that could be measured and verified in compelling experimental demonstrations

Carl Rogers

Emphasized the person’s conscious experiences, unique potential for psychological growth and self-direction, self-determination, free will, and importance of choice in human behavior; Suggested humanistic psychology differs significantly from psychoanalysis and behaviorism

Abraham Maslow

In his theory of motivation, emphasized the importance of psychological growth

Ethnocentrism

belief that one’s own culture or ethnic group is superior to all others and the related tendency to use one’s own culture as a standard by which to judge other cultures

Individualistic cultures

those that emphasize the needs and goals of the individual over the needs and goals of the group

Collectivistic cultures

those that emphasize the needs and goals of the group over the needs and goals of the individual

Neuroscience

study of physiological mechanisms in brain and nervous system that organize and control behavior, Focus may be at various levels, individual neurons, areas of the brain, specific functions like eating, emotion, or learning

Psychodynamic Perspective

Based originally on Freud’s work, Emphasis on unconscious processes and early experience, Current psychologists with this perspective may or may follow Freud or psychoanalytic principles

Behavioral Perspective

Based on Watson, Pavlov, and Skinner, Study of how behavior is acquired and modified through experience and environment, Mental health professionals may emphasize the behavioral perspective in explaining and treating psychological disorders

 Humanistic Perspective

Influenced by Maslow and Rogers, Focuses on personal growth, interpersonal relationships, and self-concept, Humanistic perspective is often emphasized among psychologists working in the mental health field

The Positive Psychology Perspective

Based on the works of Seligman and others, 2005, Studies how to contribute to optimal functioning and counterbalance traditional emphasis on problem and disorders, Topics include personal happiness, optimism, creativity, resilience, character strengths, and wisdom

The Cognitive Perspective

Focuses on mental process, memory, perception, language, problem solving, and thinking, Based on using computers as a model for human mental processing

The Cross-Cultural Perspective

Emerged in the 1980s, Emphasizes diversity of  behavior across cultures and the fact that many earlier findings were not universal (e.g., study of social loafing); attitudes, values, beliefs and behaviors shared by a group of people; Communicated from one generation to another

The Evolutionary Perspective

Applies the principles of evolution to explain psychological processes, Survival of organisms of a species better for those members who are better adjusted to environment, Inherited differences in adjustment, Assumes that psychological processes (like biological processes) are subject to natural selection

Clinical psychologists

are trained in the diagnosis, treatment, causes, and prevention of psychological disorders; Ph.D. or Psy.D. degrees

Psychiatrists

§have medical degrees (M.D. or D.O.) followed by specialized training in the diagnosis, treatment, causes, and prevention of psychological disorders: Emphasize biological factors and use biomedical therapies, such as prescription drugs, electroconvulsive therapy, and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

Scientific method

a set of assumptions, attitudes, and procedures that guide researchers: in creating questions to investigate, in generating evidence, in drawing conclusions

Naturalistic Observation

means *just watching (and taking notes), and not trying to change anything*, This method can be used to study more than one individual,  and to find truths that apply to a broader population.

Correlation Coefficient

a **number** representing the **strength** and **direction** of correlation, **The strength** of the relationship refers to how close the dots are to a straight line, which means one variable changes exactly as the other one does; this number varies from 0.00 to   +/- 1.00., The **direction** of the correlation can be **positive** (both variables increase together) or **negative** (as one goes up, the other goes down)

**independent variable (IV)**

The variable we are able to manipulate independently of what the other variables are doing

dependent variable (DV)

The variable we expect to experience a change which depends on the manipulation we’re doing

confounding variables

*The other variables that might have an effect on the dependent variable*

**American Psychological Association Guidelines**

**Do no harm.,** Accurately describe risks to potential participants., Ensure that participation is voluntary., Minimize discomfort to participants., Maintain confidentiality., Do not unnecessarily invade privacy., Use deception only when absolutely necessary., Provide debriefing to all participants., Provide results and interpretations to participants., Treat participants with dignity and respect., Allow participants to withdraw at any time for any reason.

neurons

The body’s information system is built from billions of interconnected cells

cell body

the cells life support center

Neural impulse

(action potential) (electrical signal traveling down the axon)

Myelin Sheath

(covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses

terminal branches of axon

form junctions with other cells

axon

passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles or glands

dendrites

receive messages from other cells

Electrical signaling

action potential

chemical signaling

neurotransmitters

at rest the inside of the cell is at

\-70 microvolts

with inputs to dendrites become more

positive

if resting potential rises above threshold, an action potential starts to travel from cell body down the

axon

Action potential opens cell membrane to allow

sodium (Na+) in

inside of cell rapidly becomes more positive than

outside

this depolarization travels down the axon as leading edge of

the action potential

after depolarization, potassium (K+) moves out restoring the inside to a negative voltage, this is called

repolarization

repolarization leads to a voltage below resting potential called

hyperpolarization

Synapse

a junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. This tiny gap is called the *synaptic gap* or *cleft*

Neurotransmitters

released from the sending neuron travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing it to generate an action potential.

Antagonists

fit the receptor but poorly and block the neurotransmitters, Botox blocks ACh

Agonists

fit receptor well and act like the neurotransmitters, Heroine mimics endorphins

Reuptake

Neurotransmitters in the synapse are reabsorbed into the sending neurons through the process of reuptake. This process applies the brakes on neurotransmitter action.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Found in neuromuscular junctions, Involved in muscle movements, Involved in learning, memory and emotion, Patients with Alzheimer's disease tend to lose brain cells that produce ACh

Curare

blocks ACh receptors, paralysis results

Nerve gases and Black Widow spider venom

too much ACh leads to severe muscle spasms and possible death

Serotonin

Affects neurons involved in sleep, appetite, sensory perception, temperature regulation, pain suppression and mood

severe depression

Low levels of serotonin

Norepinephrine

Affects neurons involved in increased heart rate and the slowing of intestinal activity  during stress; Involved in learning, dreaming, memory, waking from sleep, and emotion; Disruption is associated with depression

Dopamine

Involved in movement, attention, learning, pleasurable and rewarding experiences; The addictions to some drugs like nicotine and cocaine are related to their dopamine increasing properties; __________ imbalance involved in Parkinson’s disease (too little) and schizophrenia (excessive levels

Glutamate

The major excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain; In Multiple Sclerosis immune cells overproduce ________,__ which damages or kills the glial cells that usually produce myelin; Too much __________ (and too little GABA) associated with epileptic seizures

GABA

Inhibition of brain activity; Increased by alcohol; Anti-anxiety medications such as Valium and Xanax work by increasing ___ levels; Huntington’s disease involves loss of neurons that utilize ______; Symptoms: jerky involuntary movements, mental deterioration

Endorphins

Group of chemical messengers that modulate the effects of neurotransmitters in the brain; Similar in structure and action to opiates; Control pain and pleasure; Released in response to pain

The endocrine system

the body’s “slow” chemical communication system. Communication is carried out by hormones synthesized by a set of glands

Hormones

chemicals synthesized by the endocrine glands and secreted into the bloodstream. It affects the brain and many other tissues of the body

Endorphins

Endogenous morphines that modify our natural response to pain; act as neuromodulators

Melatonin

Released by the pineal gland in response to daily cycles of light and dark

Epinephrine

Adrenal hormone that tends to arouse the body;  associated with fear

Norepinephrine

Neurotransmitter and adrenal hormone that tends to arouse the body; associated with anger

Thyroid hormones

Help regulate metabolism rate

Sensory neurons

carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the CNS.

Motor neurons

carry outgoing information from the CNS to muscles and glands. Interneurons connect the two types of neurons.

Sympathetic Nervous System

arouses (fight- or flight)

Parasympathetic Nervous System

calms (rest and digest)

Hindbrain: Cerebellum

coordinated, rapid voluntary movements: playing piano, kicking, throwing etc. If there is lesions to this there will be: jerky exaggerated movements, difficulty walking, loss of balance, shaking hands

Hindbrain: Medulla

controls breathing, heart rate, digestion, other vital reflexes: swallowing, coughing, vomiting, sneezing

Hindbrain: Reticular Formation

Network of neurons in the brainstem (and thalamus), regulates sleep and arousal, attention

Hindbrain: Pons

Helps coordinate movements on left and right side of the body, like postural reflexes which help you maintain balance while standing or moving

Thalamus

Relay station in brain, Processes most  information to and from higher brain centers

Forebrain: Hypothalamus

Contains nuclei involved in a variety of behaviors: sexual behavior, hunger, thirst, sleep, water and salt balance, body temperature regulation, circadian rhythms, role in hormone secretion

Forebrain: Amygdala

Identify emotion from facial expressions, Damage to the Amygdala makes this task very difficult

The Cerebrum

The cerebral cortex is the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres. It is the body’s ultimate control and information processing center.

**Frontal lobe**

largest lobe, produces voluntary muscle movements, involved in thinking, planning, emotional control

**Temporal lobe**

primary receiving area for auditory information

**Occipital lobe**

primary receiving area for visual information

**Parietal lobe**

processes somatic information

Brodmann areas (52)

are regions of the cerebral cortex, defined by its cytoarchitecture

Broca’s area

helps in producing coherent speech

wernicke’s area

helps in speech processing and understanding

motor cortex

the area at the rear of the frontal lobes that control voluntary movements

sensory cortex (parietal cortex)

recieves information from skin surface and sense organs

plasticity

refers to the brain’s ability to modify itself after some types of injury or illness

electroencephalogram (EEG)

electrodes (to track electrical activity)

positron emission tomography (PET)

radioactively tagged, glucose or oxygen (to track chemical activity)

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

magnets (to track the flow of oxygen