54 - The Great War, 1916-1918 (abridged)

Paul von Hindenburg

commander of the Imperial German Army during World War I; along with Erich Ludendorff became de facto co-military dictator of Germany after 1916 in order to manage the war effort; later president of Germany (1925–1934) who appointed Hitler as chancellor in 1933

Erich Ludendorff

German general who, along with Paul von Hindenburg, became de facto co-military dictator of Germany after 1916 in order to manage the war effort; led the failed 1918 Spring Offensive; took part in 1923 Nazi Beer Hall Putsch

battle of Verdun

February-December 1916 massive German offensive intended to "bleed France white"; around 800,000 casualties inflicted; symbolized French determination to defend with national rallying cry "They shall not pass!"; ended in stalemate

Brusilov Offensive

June-September 1916 massive Russian offensive on the Eastern Front; inflicted 1.6 million casualties; worst crisis of the Central Powers and greatest Allied victory of the war; forced Germany to halt the Verdun offensive and transfer forces east; drastically weakened Austria-Hungary which had to rely on German support after

battle of the Somme

July-November 1916 massive British and French offensive; largest battle of Western Front; inflicted over 1 million casualties; ended in stalemate

Arab Revolt

1916-1918 Arab rebellion against the Ottoman Empire; aimed to create a single unified and independent Arab state from Syria to Yemen which the British had promised to recognize

Tsar Nicholas II of Russia

last Tsar of Russia (r. 1894-1917); traveled to the front to assume personal command of Russian forces; overthrown in February Revolution of 1917

February (March) 1917 Russian Revolution

1917 overthrow of Tsar Nicholas II ending over 300 years of monarchical rule by the Romanov dynasty; caused by major military losses, food shortages, rising prices, loss of morale, and long-term unpopularity of the regime; occurred in February of old Julian calendar still used in Russia and March of the Gregorian calendar used elsewhere

Russian Provisional Government

temporary government created by the Russian Duma after the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II; dominated by liberals and traditional political leaders; its decision to remain in World War I caused loss of support of both the soviets and the people

soviets

local representative councils of workers and soldiers formed in Russia after the downfall of Tsar Nicholas II; were supposed to maintain order until the election of a constituent national assembly

Petrograd Soviet

mass representative body of 2,000-3,000 workers, soldiers, and socialist intellectuals in the Russian capital; came to rival the Provisional Government for national political leadership

Army Order No. 1

Petrograd Soviet instructions to soldiers and sailors to obey officers only if their orders did not contradict decrees of the Petrograd Soviet; stripped officers of authority and placed power in elected committees of common soldiers; caused military chaos

Alexander Kerensky

head of the Provisional Government in 1917; made unpopular choice to continue Russia's participation in World War I; overthrown in the November 1917 Bolshevik Revolution

Sussex Pledge

German promise made in 1916 to warn neutral ships and passenger vessels before submarine attacks; violation of this promise in 1917 contributed to the U.S. entry into the war

Zimmerman Telegram

1917 instructions to the German embassy in Mexico to ask for a Mexican alliance against the United States

U.S. Associated Power

entered the war in April 1917 to "make the world safe for democracy"; due to German violation of U.S. neutrality through unrestricted submarine warfare and interception of the Zimmerman note

American Expeditionary Forces

about two million American professional soldiers, National Guard members, volunteers, and draftees who fought with the Allies in France

October (November) 1917 Bolshevik Revolution

1917 seizure of political power in Petrograd by the communist Bolshevik Party led by Lenin and Trotsky; occurred October 25 of old Julian calendar still used in Russia and November 7 of Gregorian calendar used elsewhere

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

March 1918 surrender of the new Bolshevik government of Russia to the Central Powers; Russia lost control of Poland, Ukraine, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania and Germany shifted troops to Western Front

Kaiserschlacht/German Spring Offensive

March-July 1918 final German offensive; Germany had a temporary numerical advantage after Russian withdrawal from the war; made massive territorial gains before American reinforcements arrived and the Allies launched a counteroffensive

Hundred Days Offensive

August-November 1918 massive Allied offensive undoing German gains of the Spring Offensive; broke the German defensive Hindenburg Line and brought World War I to end; inflicted 2.24 million casualties

Spanish flu

1918-1920 worldwide influenza pandemic that infected 500 million people and killed 50-100 million (3-5% of world population); virus hit Central Powers first and may have helped tip the balance of power in World War I towards the Allies

German Revolution

November 1918-August 1919 transformation of Germany from an imperial monarchy to the democratic parliamentary Weimar Republic; a German sailors' mutiny and worker strikes led to abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II on November 9, 1918

Armistice

ceasefire that ended World War I at 11:00 AM on November 11, 1918